Chapter3 Analyzing ConsumerMarkets and Buyer Behavior

• 内容提要：中国经济管理大学  www.mhjy.net  www.eauc.hk

   

  第三章  消費者需求研究

   

   

  
  

  教學目的：通過對消費者市場和購買行為的相關知識的講授，使學生掌握關於“研究消費者市場和購買行為”對行銷決策的重要性。

  教學重點：消費者行為；影響消費者行為的內在因素；影響消費者行為的外在因素；消費者購買行為的主要類型；消費者購買決策過程的主要步驟。

  教學難點：分析消費者購買行為。

  教學時數：6（講授、實踐、討論）

  教學內容與步驟：

  消費者創造了人類的財富

  科特勒論行銷：最重要的事情是預測顧客的行蹤，並且能走在他們的前面。

  楊洪濤論行銷：消費者購買的是需求，而非產品。

  
  

  本章主要內容

  ? 購買者需求的特性以及怎樣影響購買行為？

  ? 購買者是怎樣做出購買決策的？

  Chapter3 Analyzing ConsumerMarkets and Buyer Behavior

  
  

  Kotler on Marketing

   The most important thing is to forecast where customers are moving, and be in front of them.

  Chapter Objectives

  § In this chapter, we focus on two questions:

  1. How do the buyers’ characteristics – cultural, social, personal, and psychological – influence buying behavior?

  2. How does the buyer make purchasing decisions?

  Influencing buyer behavior 

  The starting point for understanding buyer behavior is the stimulus-response model shown in Figure 7.1. Marketing and environmental stimuli enter the buyer's consciousness. The buyer's characteristics and decision processes lead to certain purchase decisions. The marketer's task is to understand what happens in the buyer's consciousness between the arrival of outside stimuli and the purchase decisions.

      A consumer's buying behavior is influenced by cultural, social, personal, and psychological factors. Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence.

  Cultural factors

  Culture, subculture, and social class are particularly important in buying behavior. Culture is the fundamental determinant of a person's wants and behavior. The growing child acquires a set of values, perceptions, preferences, and behaviors through his or her family and other key institutions. A child growing up in the United States is exposed to the following values: achievement and success, activity, efficiency and practicality, progress, material comfort, individualism, freedom, external comfort, humanitarianism, and youthfulness.

     Each culture consists of smaller subcultures that provide more specific identification and socialization for their members. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. When subcultures grow large and affluent enough, companies often design specialized marketing programs to serve them. Such programs are known as diversity marketing, a practice which was pioneered during the 1980s by large companies like AT&T, Sears Roebuck, and Coca-Cola. Diversity marketing grew out of careful marketing research, which revealed that different ethnic and demographic niches did not always respond favorably to mass-market advertising. (See "Marketing Insight: Marketing to Latinos, African Americans, and seniors.") 

  Virtually all-human societies exhibit social stratification. Stratification sometimes takes the form of a caste system where the members of different castes are reared for certain roles and cannot change their caste membership. More frequently, it takes the form of social classes, relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in a society, which are hierarchically ordered and whose members share similar values, interests, and behavior.

  Social classes reflect not only income, but also other indicators such as occupation, education, and area of residence: Social classes differ in dress, speech patterns, recreational preferences, and many other characteristics. Table 7.1 describes the seven U.S. social classes identified by social scientists. Social classes have several characteristics. First, those within each class tend to behave more alike than persons from two different social classes. Second, persons are perceived as occupying inferior or superior positions according to social class. Third, social class is indicated by a cluster of variables---for example, occupation, income, wealth, education, and value orientation--rather than by any single variable. Fourth, individuals can move up or down the social-class ladder during their lifetimes. The extent of this mobility varies according to how rigid the social stratification is in a given society.

   Social classes show distinct product and brand preferences in many areas, including clothing, home furnishings, leisure activities, and automobiles. Social classes differ in media preferences, with upper-class consumers preferring magazines and books and lower-class consumers preferring television. Even within a media category such as TV, upper-class consumers prefer news and drama, and lower-class consumers prefer soap operas and sports programs. There are also language differences among the social classes. Advertising copy and dialogue must ring true to the targeted social class.

  Social factors

  In addition to cultural factors, a consumer's behavior is influenced by such social factors as reference groups, family, and social roles and statuses.

  REFERENCE GROUPS A person s reference groups consist of all the groups that have a direct (face-to-face) or indirect influence on the person's attitudes or behavior. Groups having a direct influence on a person are called membership groups.

  FAMILY the family is the most important consumer-buying organization in society and family members constitute the most influential primary reference group. The family has been researched extensively. We can distinguish between two families in that buyer's life. The family of orientation consists of parents and siblings. From parents person acquires an orientation toward religion, politics, and economics and a sense personal ambition, self-worth, and love? Even if the buyer no longer interacts very much with his or her parents, their influence on the buyer's behavior can be significant. In countries where parents live with grown children, their influence can be substantial. A more direct influence on everyday buying behavior is the family of procreation namely, one's spouse and children.

  ROLES AN D STATUSES A person participates in many groups--family, clubs, organizations. The person's position in each group can be defined in terms of r61e and status. A role consists of the activities a person is expected to perform. Each role carries a status.

  Personal factors

  A buyer's decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics. These include the buyer's age and stage in the life cycle, occupation, economic circumstances, lifestyle, and personality and self-concept.

  AGE AND STAGE IN THE LIFE CYCLE People buy different goods and services over a lifetime. They eat baby food in the early years, most foods in the growing and mature years, and special diets in the later years. Taste in clothes, furniture, and recreation is also age related.

      OCCUPATION AND ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCES Occupation also influences consumption patterns. A blue-collar worker will buy work clothes, work shoes, and lunchboxes. A company president will buy expensive suits, air travel, and country club membership. Marketers try to identify the occupational groups that have above-average interest in their products and services. A company can even tailor its products for certain occupational groups: Computer software companies, for example, design different products for brand managers, engineers, lawyers, and physicians.

  LIFESTYLE People from the same subculture, social class, and occupation may lead quite different lifestyles. A lifestyle is a person's pattern of living in the world as expressed in activities, interests, and opinions. Lifestyle portrays the "whole person" interacting with his or her environment. Marketers search for relationships between their products and lifestyle groups. For example, a computer manufacturer might find that most computer buyers are achievement-oriented. The marketer may then aim the brand more clearly at the achiever lifestyle.

      Psychographics is the science of using psychology and demographics to better understand consumers. One of the most popular commercially available classification systems based on psychographics measurements is SRI Consulting Business Intelligence's (SRIC-BI) VALSTM framework. VALS classifies all U.S. adults into eight primary groups based on psychological attributes and key demographics. The segmentation system is based on responses to a questionnaire featuring 4 demographic and 35 attitudinal questions. The VALS system is continually updated with new data from more then 80,000 surveys per year.

      The major tendencies of the four groups with high resources are:

   1. Actualizes: Successful, sophisticated, active, "take-charge" people. Purchases often reflect cultivated tastes for relatively upscale, niche-oriented products.

   2. Fulfilled: Mature, satisfied, comfortable, and reflective. Favor durability, functionality, and value in products.

   3. Achievers: Successful, career- and work-oriented. Favor established, prestige products that demonstrate success to their peers.

   4. Experiences: Young, vital, enthusiastic, impulsive, and rebellious. Spend a comparatively high proportion of income on clothing, fast food, music, movies, and video.

  The major tendencies of the four groups with lower resources are:

   1. Believers: Conservative, conventional, and traditional. Favor familiar products and established brands.

  2. Strivers: Uncertain, insecure, approval-seeking, resource constrained. Favor stylish products that emulate the purchases of those with greater material wealth.

  3. Makers: Practical, self-sufficient, traditional, family-oriented. Favor only products with a practical or functional purpose such as tools, utility vehicles, fishing equipment.

  4. Strugglers: Elderly, resigned, passive, concerned, resource constrained cautious consumers who are loyal to favorite brands.

  PERSONALITY AND SELF-CONCEPT Each person has personality characteristics that influence his or her buying behavior. By personality, we mean a set of distinguishing human psychological traits that lead to relatively consistent and enduring responses to environmental stimuli. Personality is often described in terms of such traits as self- confidence, dominance, autonomy, deference, sociability, defensiveness, and adaptability. Personality can be useful variable in analyzing consumer brand choices. The idea is that brands also have personalities, and that consumers are likely to choose brands whose personalities match their own. We define brand personality as the specific mix of human traits that may be attributed to a particular brand.

  Psychological factors

   A person's buying choices are influenced by four major psychological factors--motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes.

   M OTIVAII 0 N A person has many needs at any given time. Some needs are bioorganic; they arise from physiological states of tension such as hunger, thirst, or discomfort. Other needs are psychogenesis; they arise from psychological states of tension such as the need for recognition, esteem, or belonging. A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity. A motive is a need that is sufficiently pressing to drive the person to act.

     The buying decision process

  Buying roles

  Buying behavior

  COMPLEX BUYING BEHAVIOR Complex buying behavior involves a three-step process. First, the buyer develops beliefs about the product. Second, he or she develops attitudes about the product. Third, he or she makes a thoughtful choice. Consumers engage in complex buying behavior when they are highly involved in a purchase and aware of significant differences among brands. This is usually the case when the product is expensive, bought infrequently, risky, and highly self-expressive, like an automobile.

      The marketer of a high-involvement product must understand consumers' information gathering and evaluation behavior. The marketer needs to develop strategies that assist the buyer in learning about the product's attributes and their relative importance, and which call attention to the high standing of the company's brand on the more important attributes. The marketer needs to differentiate the brand's features, use print media to describe the brand's benefits, and motivate sales personnel and the buyer's acquaintances to influence the final brand choice.                                   DISSONANCE-REDUCING BUYER BEHAVIOR sometimes the consumer is highly involved in a purchase but sees little difference in brands. The high involvement is based on the fact that the purchase is expensive, infrequent, and risky. In this case, the buyer will shop around to learn what is available. If the consumer finds quality differences in the brands, he or she might go for the higher price. If the consumer finds little difference, he or she might simply buy on price or convenience.

      After the purchase, the consumer might experience dissonance that stems from noticing certain disquieting features or hearing favorable things about other brands, and will be alert to information that supports his or her decision. In this example, the consumer first acted, and then acquired new beliefs, then ended up with a set of attitudes; Marketing communications should supply beliefs and evaluations that help the consumer feel good about his or her brand choice.

   HABITUAL BUYIN6 BEHAVIOR Many products are bought under conditions of low involvement and the absence of significant brand differences. Consider salt. Consumers have little involvement in this product category. They go to the store and reach for the brand. If they keep reaching for the same brand, it is out of habit, not strong brand loyalty. There is good evidence that consumers have low involvement with most low-cost, frequently purchased products.

  VARIETY-SEEKING BUYING BEHAVIOR some buying situations are characterized by low involvement but significant brand differences. Here consumers often do a lot of brand switching. Think about cookies. The consumer has some beliefs about cookies, chooses a brand of cookies without much evaluation, and evaluates the product during consumption. Next time, the consumer may reach for another brand out of a wish for a different taste. Brand switching occurs for the sake of variety rather than dissatisfaction.

       The market leader and the minor brands in this product category have different marketing strategies. The market leader will try to encourage habitual buying behavior by dominating the shelf space, avoiding out-of-stock conditions, and sponsoring frequent reminder advertising. Challenger firms will encourage variety seeking by offering lower prices, deals, coupons, free samples, and advertising that presents reasons for trying something new.

  Stages of the buying decision process

   Smart companies will immerse themselves in trying to understand the customer's overall experience in learning about a product, making a brand choice, using the product, and even disposing of it. Honda engineers took videos of shoppers loading groceries into car trunks to observe their frustrations and generate possible design solutions, Intuit, the maker of Quicken financial software, watched first-time buyers try to learn Quicken to sense their problems in learning how to use the software. Benson Shapiro and his co-authors urged companies to "staple yourself to an order" to appreciate everything that occurs or might go wrong in the ordering process.

       How can marketers learn about the stages in the buying process for their product? They can think about how they themselves would act (introspective method). They can interview a small number of recent purchasers, asking them to recall the events leading to their purchase (retrospective method). They can locate consumers who plan to buy the product and ask them to think out loud about going through the buying : process (prospective method); or they can ask consumers to describe the ideal way to buy the product (prescriptive method). Each method’ yields a picture of the steps in the process.

  Problem recognition

  The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need. The need can be triggered by internal or external stimuli. With an internal stimulus, one of the person's normal needs--hunger, thirst, sex--rises to a threshold level and becomes a drive; or a need can be aroused by an external stimulus. A person passes a bakery and sees freshly baked bread that stimulates her hunger; she admires a neighbor's new car; or she sees a television ad for a Hawaiian vacation.

      Marketers need to identify the circumstances that trigger a particular need. By gathering information from a number of consumers, marketers can identify the most frequent stimuli that spark an interest in a product category. They can then develop marketing strategies that trigger consumer interest.

  Information search

  An aroused consumer will be inclined to search for more information. We can distinguish between two levels of arousal. The milder search state is called heightened attention. At this level a person simply becomes more receptive to information about a product.

      At the next level, the person may enter an active information search: looking for reading material, phoning friends, and visiting stores to learn about the product. Of key interest to the marketer are the major information sources to which the consumer will turn and the relative influence each will have on the subsequent purchase decision.

  Consumer information sources fall into four groups:

  Personal sources: Family, friends, neighbors, and acquaintances

  Commercial sources: Advertising, salespersons, dealers, packaging, displays

  Public sources: Mass media, consumer-rating organizations

  Experiential sources: Handling, examining, using the product

      The relative amount and influence of these information sources vary with the product category and the buyer's characteristics. Generally speaking, the consumer receives the most information about a product from commercial sources--that is, marketer dominated sources. However, the most effective information comes from personal sources. Each information source performs a different function in influencing the buying decision. Commercial information normally performs an informing function, band personal sources perform a legitimizing or evaluation function. For example, physicians often learn of new drugs from commercial sources but turn to other doctors for evaluative information.

  Evaluation of alternatives

  How does the consumer process competitive brand information and make a final value judgment? There is no single process used by all consumers or by one consumer in all buying situations. There are several decision evaluation processes, the most current models of which see the process as cognitively oriented. That is, they see the consumer as forming judgments largely on a conscious and rational basis.

       Some basic concepts will help us understand consumer evaluation processes: First, the consumer is trying to satisfy a need. Second, the consumer is looking for certain benefits from the product solution. Third, the consumer sees each product as a bundle of attributes with varying abilities for delivering the benefits sought to satisfy this need.

    The attributes of interest to buyers vary by product:

    I. Cameras: Picture sharpness, camera speeds, camera size, and price

    2. Hotels: Location, cleanliness, atmosphere, price

    3. Mouthwash: Color, effectiveness, germ-killing capacity, price, taste/flavor

    4, Tires: Safety, treads life, ride quality, price

  Purchase decision

  In the evaluation stage, the consumer forms preferences among the brands in the choice set. The consumer may also form an intention to buy the most preferred brand. However, two factors can intervene between the purchase intention and the purchase decision.

  The first factor is the attitudes of others. The extent to which another person's attitude reduces one's preferred alternative depends on two things: (1) the intensity of the other person's negative attitude toward the consumer's preferred alternative and (2) the consumer's motivation to comply with the other person's wishes? The more intense the other person's negativism and the closer the other person is to the consumer, the more the consumer will adjust his or her purchase intention. The converse is also true: A buyer's preference for a brand will increase if someone he or she respects favors the same brand strongly. The influence of others becomes complex when several people close to the buyer hold contradictory opinions and the buyer would like to please them all.

  Post purchase behavior

   After purchasing the product, the consumer will experience some level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The marketer's job does not end when the product is bauxite. Marketers must monitor post purchase satisfaction, post purchase actions, and post purchase product uses.

  POSTPURCHASE SATISFACTION  What determines whether the buyer will be highly satisfied, somewhat satisfied, or dissatisfied with a purchase? The buyer's satisfaction is a function of the closeness between the buyer's expectations and the product's perceived performance? If performance falls short of expectations, the customer is disappointed; if it meets expectations, the customer is satisfied; ff it exceeds expectations, the customer is delighted. These feelings make a difference in whether the customer buys the product again and talks favorably.

  POSTPURCHASE ACTIONS Satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the product will influence a consumer's subsequent behavior. If the consumer is satisfied, he or she will exhibit a higher probability of purchasing the product again. For example, data on automobile brand choice show a high correlation between being highly satisfied with the last brand bought and intention to buy the brand again. One survey showed that 75 percent of Toyota buyers were highly satisfied and about 75 percent intended to buy a Toyota again; 35 percent of Chevrolet buyers were highly satisfied and about 35 percent intended to buy a Chevrolet again. The satisfied customer will also tend to say good things about the brand to others. Marketers say: "Our best advertisement is a satisfied customer.

  POSTPURCHASE USE AND DISPOSAL Marketers should also monitor how buyers use and dispose of the product. If consumers store the product in a closet, the product is probably not very satisfying, and word of mouth will not be strong. If they sell or trade the product, new-product sales will be depressed. Consumers may also find new uses for the product:

  Other models of the buying decision process

  The five-stage model of the buying decision process shown in Figure 7.4 is one of several models for understanding the buyer's decision process. Here are two other models that marketers have found useful.

  HEALTH MODEL Social marketers in the health field are interested in how patients adopt healthful behaviors, such as stopping smoking or starting a new diet or exercise program. A useful model called Stages of Change distinguishes five stages

  第三章 習      題

  一、選擇題（1~5題是單項選擇題，6~10題是多項選擇題。每小題1分，共10分）
  1、（ ）是正確的。
  A、贊助是廣告的一種形式 B、贊助是銷售促進的一種方式
  C、贊助是一種宣傳形式 D、以上說法都對
  2、不可分離性，即服務的（ ）和消費過程同時進行。
  A、銷售過程 B、行銷過程 C、生產過程 D、消費過程
  3、廣告中如須傳播大量的技術資料資訊，則應選擇 （ ）
  A、電視廣告媒體 B、廣播廣告媒體
  C、雜誌廣告媒體 D、報紙廣告媒體
  4、下列運輸方式中，（ ）的成本低。
  A、鐵路運輸 B、水運 C、空運 D、管道運輸
  5、（ ）的主要任務是向管理人員提供有關銷售、成本、存貨、現金流程、應收帳款等各種反映企業經營狀況的資訊。
  A、內部報告系統 B、市場行銷情報系統 C、市場行銷研究系統 D、市場行銷分析系統
  6、影響消費者購買行為的主要因素有（ ）
  A、文化因素 B、社會因素 C、個人因素
  D、心理因素 E、人際因素
  7、根據購買者及購買目的不同，市場可劃分為（ ）
  A、消費者市場 B、生產者市場 C、中間商市場
  D、政府市場 E、國際市場
  8、6Ps組合是在4Ps的基礎上加 （ ）
  A、管道 B、權力 C、價格 D、折扣 E、公共關係
  9、企業發展新業務的方法有（ ）
  A、前向一體化 B、密集增長 C、多角化增長
  D、一體化增長 E、產品開發
  10、市場包括以下幾個要素（ ）
  A、銷售者 B、購買者 C、購買力 D、市場行銷機構 E、購買欲望
  二、判斷題（每小題2分，共10分）
  1、市場行銷觀念認為，從消費者的需要出發往往導致企業的利潤減少。 （ ）
  2、企業宣傳介紹其產品的優點和說服目標顧客來購買其產品所進行的種種活動就是市場行銷組合。（ ）
  3、消費者的偏好和購買意圖總是導致實際購買。（ ）
  4、寶潔公司在中國市場僅洗髮精就有“飄柔”、“潘婷”、“海飛絲”，這屬於多品牌決策。 （ ）
  5、市場需求對價格極為敏感時應採用撇脂定價。（ ）
  三、名詞解釋（每小題3分，共15分）
  1、 認知價值定價法 2、垂直市場行銷系統 3、物流
  4、促銷組合 5、市場行銷機會

  四、簡答題（每小題7分，共35分）
  1、市場行銷管理哲學有哪幾種類型？
  2、如何對管道進行管理？
  3、簡述產品壽命週期各階段的市場策略。
  4、簡述市場領導者的競爭策略。
  5、企業制定價格的步驟是什麼？

  五、案例分析（共30分）.
  1、公關專家伯內斯曾說，工商企業要“投公眾所好”。這似乎成了實業界一條“顛撲不破且放之四海而皆準”的真理。但索尼公司敢於毅然地說“不”。索尼的行銷政策“並不是先調查消費者喜歡什麼商品，然後再投其所好，而是以新產品去引導他們進行消費”。因為“消費者不可能從技術方面考慮一種產品的可行性，而我們則可以做到這一點。因此，我們並不在市場調查方面投入過多的兵力，而是集中力量探索新產品及其用途的各種可能性，通過與消費者的直接交流，教會他們使用這些新產品，達到開拓市場的目的”。
  索尼的創始人盛田昭夫認為，新產品的發明往往來自於靈感，突然閃現，且稍縱即逝。現在流行於全世界的可擕式身歷聲單放機的誕生，就出自于一種必然中的“偶然”。一天，井深抱著一台索尼公司生產的可擕式身歷聲盒式答錄機，頭戴一副標準規格的耳機，來到盛田昭夫房間。從一進門，井深便一直抱怨這台機器如何笨重。盛田昭夫問其原因，他解釋說：“我想欣賞音樂，又怕妨礙別人，但也不能為此而整天坐在這台答錄機前，所以就帶上它邊走邊聽。不過這傢伙太重了，實在受不了。”井深的煩惱，點亮了盛田昭夫醞釀已久的構想。他連忙找來技師，希望他們能研製出一種新式的超小型放音機。
  然而，索尼公司內部，幾乎眾口一詞反對盛田昭夫的新創意。但盛田昭夫毫不動搖，堅持研製。結果不出所料，該產品投放市場，空前暢銷。索尼為該機取了一個通俗易懂的名字——“沃可曼”。日後每談起這件事，盛田昭夫都不禁感慨萬千。當時無論進行什麼市場調查，都不可能由此產生“沃可曼”的設想。而恰恰正是這一不起眼的小小的產品，改變了世界上幾百萬、幾千萬人的音樂欣賞方式。
  索尼公司在“創立旨趣書”上寫著這樣一條經營哲學：“最大限度地發揮技術人員的技能，自由開朗，建設一個歡樂的理想工廠。這就是‘創造需求’的哲學依據。”
  問 題：
  1、你認為應從哪些方面來理解“創造需求”這一概念？
  2、結合案例分析“創造需求”在哪些方面突破了傳統的行銷原理。

  2、前幾年在營養液推銷大戰中，某牌營養液於高考前夕在《羊城晚報》上刊出了一則以“如對考試無助，100%退款”為標題的醒目廣告。該廣告內文提出的承諾：為對消費者負責，凡於5月13日～6月10日之間在廣州友邦藥店、中山八路利眾藥店、先烈路廣健藥三家指定藥店購買該牌營養液服用後感覺對消除疲勞、恢復體能、調整狀態無助的廣東高考生可憑購買發票連同高考准考試原件、身份證影本以及剪下的所購全部包裝盒上的該品牌圖形標誌，于當年7月10日～11日兩天內（以郵戳為准），以掛號信形式寄到廣東中山沙口開發區××企業公司公關部即可獲得100%退款（最高退款金額為：購買之日至高考結束期間按科學食用方法的最大量計算）。
  問題：
  1、這一廣告標題所要表達的廣告主題是什麼？
  2、這一廣告所提的承諾對增強所欲表達的主題思想有多大作用？
  3、這一廣告有否違背廣告活動原則之處？