Chapter 4 - Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach

Learning Objectives

  4.1  Define what is and is not performance.

4.2  Understand the evaluative and multidimensional nature of performance.

4.3  Identify the various factors that determine performance including declarative 
       knowledge, procedural knowledge, and motivation.

     4.4  Gather information about a performance problem and understand which of the       three main determinants of performance need to be addressed to solve the
      problem.

4.5  Design a performance management system that includes both task and
       contextual performance dimensions.

4.6   Understand that performers should be placed within a context: a performer in a   specific situation engaging in behaviors leading to specific results.

4.7  Adopt a trait approach to measuring performance, which basically focuses on
       the performer and ignores the situation, his behaviors, and the results
       produced.

4.8  Adopt a behavior approach to measuring performance, which basically
       focuses on how the job is done and ignores the performer’s traits and results
       produced.

4.9  Adopt a results approach to measuring performance, which basically focuses
       on the outcomes of work and ignores the performer’s traits, as well as how
       the work is done.

4.10  Understand the situations under which a trait, behavior, or results approach
         to measuring performance may be most appropriate.

Chapter Outline

Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach

Overview
1. Defining Performance
2. Determinants of Performance
3. Performance Dimensions

1. Defining Performance
• What Performance is:
o Behavior
o What employees do
• What Performance is NOT:
o Results or outcomes
o What employees produce
• Behaviors labeled as performance are:
o Evaluative
–   Negative
–   Neutral
–   Positive
o Multidimensional
–   Many different kinds of behaviors
–   Advance or hinder organizational goals

 How does “contribution to effectiveness of others in the work unit” illustrate evaluative and multidimensional characteristics? 

• Use of Results
o Not all behaviors are
       --  Observable
-- Measurable
o Results/Consequences are sometimes used
–   To infer behavior
–   As proxy for behavioral measure

2. Determinants of Performance

Performance = Declarative Knowledge x Procedural Knowledge x Motivation

A. Declarative Knowledge
• Information about
– Facts
– Labels
– Principles
– Goals
• Understanding of task requirements

B. Procedural Knowledge
• Knowing
– What to do
– How to do it

• Skills
– Cognitive
– Physical
– Perceptual
– Motor

C. Motivation
• Choices
– Expenditure of effort
– Level of effort
– Persistence of effort
 Describe how performance is affected in a common job, such as salesclerk, if any of these are low or missing:  declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, or motivation.
Implications for Addressing Performance Problems
• Managers need information to accurately identify source(s) of performance problems
• Performance management systems need both
• Measure performance
•  Provide information on source(s) of problems

 What can happen if the manager is unable to accurately identify the source(s) of performance problems?

Factors Influencing Determinants of Performance:
• Individual characteristics
– Procedural knowledge
– Declarative knowledge
– Motivation
• HR practices
• Work environment
 Give examples where each of the above factors may negatively affect performance. 
3. Performance Dimensions

Types of multidimensional behaviors (overview)
• Task performance
• Contextual performance
– Pro-social behaviors
– Organizational citizenship

Task performance (definition)
• Activities that transform raw materials into the goods and services produced by the organization
• Activities that help with the transformation process by
– replenishing the supply of raw materials
– distributing its finished products
– providing important planning, coordination, supervising, or staff functions

Contextual performance (definition):
• Behaviors that contribute to the organization’s effectiveness by providing a good environment in which task performance can occur, such as:
–  persisting with enthusiasm and exerting extra effort
–  volunteering to carry out tasks that are not part of the job
–  helping and cooperating with others
–  following organizational rules and procedures
–  endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives
 What kinds of behavior did TRW emphasize?  Why?
Main Differences Between Task and Contextual Performance
•   Task Performance
–  Varies across jobs
–  Likely to be role prescribed
–  Influenced by
• Abilities
• Skills 
• Contextual Performance
– Fairly similar across jobs
– Not likely to be role prescribed
– Influenced by
• Personality

Reasons to include Task and Contextual Performance Dimensions in a PM System
• Global competition
• Teamwork
• Customer service
• Supervisor views
 What was the payoff for O2 Ireland in focusing on both task and contextual performance dimensions in their PM system?
 
4. Approaches to Measuring Performance

Job Performance in Context (see figure in slides)

Overview
•   Trait Approach
– Emphasizes individual traits of employees
•   Behavior Approach
– Emphasizes how employees do the job
•   Results Approach
– Emphasizes what employees produce

Trait Approach to Assessing Performance
•    Emphasis on individual
– Evaluate stable traits
•   Cognitive abilities
•   Personality
–  Based on relationship between traits and performance
•    Appropriate if
– Structural changes planned for organization
•    Disadvantages
           -- Improvement not under individual’s control
           -- Trait may not lead to desired behaviors or results  

Behavior Approach to Assessing Performance
• Appropriate if
– Employees take a long time to achieve desired outcomes
– Link between behaviors and results is not obvious
– Outcomes occur in the distant future
– Poor results are due to causes beyond the performer’s control
• Not appropriate if above conditions are not present

 How might the behavior approach be appropriate for situations as different as the NASA Mars Exploration Program and a night assembly line?

Results Approach to Assessing Performance
• Advantages
– Less time involved in defining/measuring results
– Lower cost to track results
– Data appear to be objective
• Most appropriate when
– Workers are skilled in the needed behaviors
– Behaviors and results are obviously related
– Results show consistent improvement over time
– There are many ways to do the job right

 Why would a basketball player’s performance be assessed by results? 

Defining Performance and Choosing a Measurement Approach: Summary
• Defining Performance
• Determinants of Performance
• Performance Dimensions
• Approaches to Measuring Performance

 How did The Limited, Inc. use these measurement approaches effectively?

Worked Solutions for End-of-Chapter Cases

Case Study 4.1 Diagnosing the Causes for Poor Performance

1. Procedural knowledge is hindering Heather’s performance.  While she is excellent at designing training courses, she does not possess the interpersonal skills to effectively deliver the training classes.
(Suggested points: 2 [4.3])

2. Note to grader: A good answer focuses on development of Heather’s skills.  One example follows:  Provide individual coaching with Heather on how she can deliver a more concise message, coach other individuals, and be approachable in class.  Possibly, videotaping her teaching a class and having her critique her own performance would help.  (Note to grader: An outstanding response would include something about developing an action plan for Heather so that she knows exactly what she needs to do to perform. However, this is not covered in detail until Chapter 8.)
(Suggested points: 3, [4.4])

Case Study 4.2 Differentiating Task from Contextual Performance
(Suggested points: 5, [4.5])

Task Performance Behaviors:
• Develop and execute a business plan in accordance with BMS strategies.
• Set goals and expectations of performance for employees in division.
• Set priorities for the Sales division and allocate resources accordingly.
• Articulate the company vision and communicate your division’s role in achieving the mission.

Contextual Performance Behaviors:
• Live by the BMS pledge.
• Embrace diversity.
• Build strong relationships across the organization.
• Seek out and suggest organizational improvements.
• Cooperate with team members.

Case Study 4.3 Choosing a Performance Measurement Approach at Paychex, Inc.
(Suggested points: 5, [4.10])

  Behavior Approach to Measuring Performance is Most Appropriate When…
X Employees will take a long time to achieve the desired outcomes
  The link between behaviors and results is not obvious
  Outcomes are distant in the future
X Poor results are due to causes beyond the performer’s control
  
  Results Approach to Measuring Performance is Most Appropriate When…
X Workers are skilled in the needed behaviors
X Behaviors and results are obviously related
  Results show consistent improvement over time
X There are many ways to do the job right

Based on the table above, the recommendation is that Paychex use a combination of results and behaviors when measuring performance.  Sales should be used as a main measure of performance.  But, the importance of developing good relationships within the industry is also extremely important, and the results of doing so may not pay off  immediately or translate directly into sales.  In addition, since the account executive’s manager is not always able to observe their performance, then the company will have to infer that obtaining sales quotas is due to the account executive engaging in the appropriate behaviors.  

Additional Cases and Worked-Solutions

Case Study:  Laura’s Sweet Stuff Bakery

Laura Schulz has operated Laura’s Sweet Stuff Bakery for the past 5 years.  By 5:00 a.m. every weekday morning, customers are dropping in both to enjoy the cozy smells and to purchase fresh warm donuts and other goodies to enjoy with their coffee before going to work.  After 5 years of this schedule where she was baking by 3:00 a.m., Laura is very tired. 

Laura has decided to hire an apprentice baker and a cashier to provide early morning counter help.  She knows that she must stop treating her bakery as an extension of herself and begin operating a business.  She has a friend with an MBA who told her to establish a performance measurement system so that she can tell whether her two new employees are good employees or not. 

It all seems so complicated.  Laura has contacted the local Business School Co-op Program and asked for advice.  Your professor assigned you to answer Laura’s questions for 20% of your grade.  When you meet with Laura, she tells you that she will need you to explain with examples related to her bakery “because I’m not good at theory.”  She presents you with the following questions (to begin with):

1. What is performance and how does this term relate to my employees?
(Suggested points: 5, [4.1])

2. Why is all of this so complicated?
(Suggested points: 5, .5[4.2], .5[4.6])

3. Explain what kinds of performance I should be measuring and why.
(Suggested points: 10, .5[4.5], .5[4.10])

Answers:

1. Performance is what your employees do on the job.  It is their behaviors.  It is not the results of their behaviors.  So, performance would be what your baker does when she makes donuts and what your cashier does when she talks to customers and gives them their change.

2. It does seem complicated, because you will need to evaluate (or judge) their behaviors as to whether they are good, bad, or indifferent (positive, negative or neutral).  So, if your cashier doesn’t wash his hands before handling food, that would be bad/negative because the Health Department could fine you and customers might look for a shop that has cleaner habits. 

 This brings me to the multidimensional aspect of behaviors.  Both of your staff members will have lots of different kinds of behaviors, some of which will be positive and others of which will be negative.  For example, when you are evaluating how your baker performs (or behaves), you’ll be looking at how reliable she is, how efficient she is, whether she follows your recipes properly, how careful she is about keeping track of supplies, how well she gets along with you and the cashier, cleans up after herself, etc.  Each of these behaviors will have an impact on your business, along with lots of other behaviors.

 Since you are hoping to get some rest by hiring these two employees, you won’t be able to watch all of their behaviors.  In some cases, you will have to deduce their behaviors from the results of their actions.

In addition, it will be important to look at two different facets or characteristics of performance: task and context.  Tasks vary across jobs.  The baker bakes and your cashier deals with customers.  Both may pick up muffins and other goodies and put them on trays or in bags.  Contextual performance is defined as those behaviors that contribute to the organization’s effectiveness by providing a good environment in which task performance can occur.  Contextual performance includes behaviors such as persisting with enthusiasm and exerting extra effort as necessary to complete one’s own task activities successfully (e.g., being punctual and rarely absent, expending extra effort on the job); volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of the job (e.g., suggesting organizational improvements, making constructive suggestions), etc. Abilities and skills are used in Task Performance; personality has an impact on Contextual Performance. 

To begin with, you need to think about each of your employees.  They are performing in your bakery, doing certain behaviors that get various results.  Ideally, you want some positive consistency in the results, such as good relationships with your customers, profits, having good employees stay so you don’t have to spend time training new ones, etc.  To get good results, you will need consistent, good performance–so you need to decide what behaviors you want to see.  Some of these behaviors will be “on task,” related to getting your products into your customers’ tummies.  Some of the behaviors will be directed at putting smiles on your employees’ and customers’ faces; e.g., helpful and friendly behaviors toward the customers and each other so that customers enjoy being in your shop.  So, you’ll need to define both task and contextual behaviors that you want to see from your employees.

Now, there are three ways of measuring performance.  I don’t recommend that you use the traits method, because it measures personality and abilities. Since people can’t do much to change their personality or their abilities, this method tends not to be seen as fair and can lead to poor morale with your employees.  I think a combination of the two remaining methods might work for you.  One of these methods measures behavior and I believe this will work for aspects of the job like friendliness toward customers and helping out on tasks that aren’t your job when there’s a rush, etc. (contextual behaviors).  Mostly, you should measure results, since it will be easy to track attendance, production and sales, and whether you keep your repeat customers.  If your employees know their jobs, are skilled in the procedures you set, and are motivated to go “the extra mile” for the bakery, you will be able to sleep in some mornings with a big smile on your face, knowing that your performance measurement system will alert you to any potential problems in plenty of time.

Now, you said these were your questions “to begin with.”  How else can I help you in getting this system going?

Case Study:  St. Jessica’s Urban Medical Center Emergency Room

St. Jessica’s Urban Medical Center has adopted the following core values  which are posted on signs in most hallways and lobbies:
• Integrity:  We are honest and direct and respect our commitments.
• Stewardship:  We respectfully manage our natural, human, and financial resources.
• Spirituality:  We acknowledge the central role of spirituality in facilitating mental,  physical, and emotional health.
• Imagination:  We are creative and innovative in all we do.
• Respect:  We respect all persons and honor the heritage and missions of our sponsoring organizations.
• Excellence:  We strive to exceed the clinical quality, customer service, and cost performance expectations of our customers.
• Compassion:  We are sensitive and responsive to persons in need.

You are the director of the emergency room at St. Jessica’s Urban Medical Center.  Two weeks ago, Tuesday morning was exceptionally busy, since the City Central Hospital had been refusing ambulances and many patients were arriving at your facility instead of at the usual site. 

At about 10:15 a.m., an ambulance delivered Lucy Jones, a middle-aged woman who was a passenger in a motor vehicle accident.  The car had been rear-ended by a construction truck while waiting at a stop light.  Lucy had been in a shoulder harness seatbelt, but she was still shaken.  Her body had been rapidly shaken forward and back.  She was conscious, had very high blood pressure (180/110), said she had pain near her left shoulder blade and numbness in her left hand, and she was clearly upset and frightened.  She did not have any breathing problems except a cough, which she attributed to a cold and asthma.  She was not bleeding and was capable of walking, according to the paramedics who had checked her at the scene of the accident.  Lucy was assigned to Room 3 where Edith Smith was her nurse.

The following week, Lucy Jones complained to the hospital director that she believed the emergency room was operated in a way that was not reassuring to patients and could be dangerous, citing potential for infection and injury.  You received a memo from the director asking what happened and what you are going to do about it.  After checking the records and talking to various staff and the patient, you determine that the following events took place:

When she arrived, Edith asked Lucy to change into a hospital gown, removing her outer clothes, shoes, and socks.  She took Lucy’s blood pressure and temperature and asked about her medical history, medications, and current pain, writing the information in the patient record.  Edith left Lucy and worked with other patients, such as the 92-year-old man in a wheelchair who had fallen and had a broken collarbone.  When Edith checked back in Room 3, Lucy asked if she could use the restroom.  Edith said, “Yes,” and pointed to the patient toilets across the room.  Lucy clutched the open back of her hospital gown around her and walked barefoot to the restroom.  When she emerged, she walked up to Edith and told her that the restroom floor was very dirty and sticky and needed to be cleaned.  Edith responded, “I’m not Housekeeping,” and walked away.  Lucy returned to Room 3 and climbed back onto her cot and waited for the doctor to examine her.

After Dr. Scott examined Lucy, he told her that she probably had some strains, which should be treated with heat or ice and suggested she use an over-the-counter anti-inflammatory pain medication (such as ibuprofen) every 6 hours over the next few days.  He ordered x-rays to reassure Lucy that there was nothing more seriously wrong. 

Edith returned and told Lucy that there would be a wait for the x-rays, but they would take her as soon as possible.  Lucy asked for water and Edith said that no water was allowed until after the x-rays, in case surgery was necessary.  Lucy asked to take her outer clothing, shoes, and socks with her to X-ray.  Edith responded that these items could be left in Room 3.  Lucy pointed to the signs on the walls that say the hospital is not responsible for personal items and repeated her request.  Edith said, “Oh, all right.  I’ll get you a bag.”  She brought a bag to Lucy, who climbed off the cot, placed her personal belongings in the bag, climbed back onto the cot, and sat waiting to be taken to X-ray.

When Lucy was brought back from X-ray about an hour later, no room was available and her cot was placed in the hallway where her husband found her.  At her request, he told Edith that his wife had some questions.  Edith rolled her eyes and sighed loudly while walking to the cot where she said, “You have some questions?”  “Yes,” Lucy said, “What happens next?”  Edith replied, “We already told you.”  Lucy responded, “I’ve had a bad morning and I don’t remember what you told me.”  “We’re taking you to X-ray,” said Edith.  “I’ve already been to X-ray and now I’m back,” responded Lucy.  “I’m one of those people who need details and I want to know what will be happening next.”  Edith responded, with her hands on her hips, “We’re waiting for the x-rays to be examined.  We’re waiting for the results.”  Lucy replied, “That makes sense.  Thank you.”

Edith walked back to the central desk area and talked to the doctor.  She walked back to Lucy’s cot and said, “Well, the x-rays showed nothing wrong, so the doctor is writing up your discharge instructions and you can go.”  Lucy asked if she could take some of the ibuprofen that she had in her purse, since her left side was starting to stiffen up and the doctor had suggested this kind of medication over an hour earlier.  Edith said, “We can’t give you anything without doctor’s orders but, if you want to take responsibility for taking medicine you have in your purse, you can do that.”  She had already turned away when Lucy asked for water.  Edith shrugged her shoulders and brought Lucy a small cup of water and the discharge paperwork.  Lucy swallowed two pills and the water.

Speaking rapidly, Edith reviewed the three-part form with Lucy and asked her to sign in two places.  She tore off and kept the original and gave Lucy the yellow copy underneath.  Lucy looked at the page and commented that she could not read part of it because the writing was too light.  Edith took the paper back quickly, wrote different words over the original writing (making parts illegible), handed the paper to Lucy, and walked away.

Lucy put on her shoes and socks and climbed down from the cot.  Clutching her hospital gown around her and carrying the bag of clothes, she walked back into the patient restroom that she had complained about earlier.  After she was dressed, she walked up to Edith and said, “I know you don’t have a high opinion of me and I’m sorry for offending you.  It’s been a tough morning.  I do have one favor to ask.”  Edith replied, “What?”  Lucy replied, “Don’t let any more patients walk barefoot into that restroom.  It’s still dirty.”  Holding her husband’s arm, she walked away and Edith went back to work.

During the next week, Lucy followed the doctor’s directions.  Use of the ibuprofen, rest, and a visit to a physical therapist eliminated the stress, stiffness, and pain within the week.  She described her experiences at the emergency room to many friends, describing the sticky restroom floor and Edith’s behavior, exclaiming that she would never approve being taken to that emergency room again.  Several friends expressed concern that walking barefoot over the floor could have also exposed her to broken glass, as well as a variety of drugs and infections.

In addition to collecting information on the specific incident and its results, you also reviewed the following job description for a Registered Nurse : 

29-1111.00 - Registered Nurses
Assess patient health problems and needs, develop and implement nursing care plans, and maintain medical records. Administer nursing care to ill, injured, convalescent, or disabled patients. May advise patients on health maintenance and disease prevention or provide case management. Licensing or registration required.

Tasks
• Maintain accurate, detailed reports and records.
• Monitor, record, and report symptoms and changes in patients' conditions.
• Record patients' medical information and vital signs.
• Consult and coordinate with healthcare team members to assess, plan,    implement, and evaluate patient care plans.
• Prepare patients for, and assist with, examinations and treatments.

Knowledge
• Medicine:  Knowledge of the information and techniques needed to diagnose and treat human injuries, diseases, and deformities.
• Psychology:  Knowledge of human behavior and performance; individual differences in ability, personality, and interests.
• Customer and Personal Service:  Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services. This includes customer needs assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction.
• English Language:  Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language.

Skills
• Active Listening:  Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times.
• Reading Comprehension:  Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work-related documents.
• Critical Thinking:  Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions, or approaches to problems.
• Speaking:  Talking to others to convey information effectively.
• Time Management:  Managing one's own time and the time of others.
• Service Orientation:  Actively looking for ways to help people.
• Social Perceptiveness:  Being aware of others' reactions and understanding why they react as they do.
• Writing:  Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience.

Abilities
• Problem Sensitivity:  The ability to tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the problem, only recognizing there is a problem.
• Oral Expression:  The ability to communicate information and ideas in speaking so others will understand.
• Oral Comprehension:  The ability to listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and sentences.
• Inductive Reasoning:  The ability to combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes finding a relationship among seemingly unrelated events).
• Written Expression:  The ability to communicate information and ideas in writing so others will understand.
• Deductive Reasoning:  The ability to apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense.
• Written Comprehension:  The ability to read and understand information and ideas presented in writing.

Work Activities
• Assisting and Caring for Others:  Providing personal assistance, medical attention, emotional support, or other personal care to others such as patients.
• Documenting/Recording Information:  Entering, transcribing, recording, storing, or maintaining information in written or electronic/magnetic form.
• Getting Information:  Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining information from all relevant sources.
• Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge:  Keeping up-to-date technically and applying new knowledge to the job.
• Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work:  Developing specific goals and plans to prioritize, organize, and accomplish the work.
• Making Decisions and Solving Problems:  Analyzing information and evaluating results to choose the best solution and solve problems.
• Working Directly with the Public:  Dealing directly with the public.
• Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates:  Providing information to supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates by telephone, in written form, e-mail, or in person.
• Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships:  Developing constructive and cooperative working relationships with others, and maintaining them over time.

Work Context
• Contact with Others:  This job requires the worker to be in contact with others (face-to-face, by telephone, or otherwise) in order to perform it.
• Face-to-Face Discussions:  This job requires face-to-face discussions with individuals or teams.
• Exposure to Disease or Infections:  This job requires frequent exposure to disease/infections.
• Physical Proximity:  This job requires the worker to perform job tasks in close physical proximity to other people.
• Work with Work Group or Team:  It is important to work with others in a group or team in this job.
• Frequency of Decision Making:  The worker often makes decisions that affect other people, the financial resources, and/or the image and reputation of the organization.
• Importance of Being Exact or Accurate:  It is critically important to be very exact or highly accurate in performing this job (potentially life and death).
• Indoors, Environmentally Controlled:  This job usually requires working indoors in environmentally controlled conditions
• Impact of Decisions on Co-workers or Company Results:  The decisions an employee makes can often impact the results of co-workers, clients, or the company.

Interests
• Social:  Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating with, and teaching people. These occupations often involve helping or providing service to others.
• Realistic:  Realistic occupations frequently involve work activities that include practical, hands-on problems and solutions.

Work Styles
• Dependability:  Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and fulfilling obligations.
• Integrity:  Job requires being honest and ethical.
• Self-Control:  Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very difficult situations.
• Concern for Others:  Job requires being sensitive to others' needs and feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job.
• Cooperation:  Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude.
• Adaptability/Flexibility:  Job requires being open to change (positive or negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace.
• Attention to Detail:  Job requires being careful about detail and thorough in completing work tasks.
• Stress Tolerance:  Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and effectively with high stress situations.
• Initiative:  Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and challenges.
• Independence:  Job requires developing one's own ways of doing things, guiding oneself with little or no supervision, and depending on oneself to get things done.

Work Values
• Achievement:  Occupations that satisfy this work value are results oriented and allow employees to use their strongest abilities, giving them a feeling of accomplishment.
• Relationships:  Occupations that satisfy this work value allow employees to provide service to others and work with co-workers in a friendly non-competitive environment.

1. Discuss which factors of this job description define performance.
(Suggested points: 5, .5[4.1], 5[4.5])

2. Critically evaluate Edith’s contextual and task performance in the situation described above.
(Suggested points: 10, [4.5])

3. Critically assess the determinants of Edith’s performance in the context of this scenario. 
(Suggested points: 10, [4.3])

4. If Edith has a performance problem, explain which determinants of her performance should be addressed.
(Suggested points: 10, [4.4])

5. For the job description provided above, evaluate the approaches to measurement of performance and recommend an appropriate approach.
(Suggested points: 5, [4.10])

6. Critically assess Edith’s performance in the scenario provided by using each of the approaches to performance measurement and the job description above.
Traits approach: (Suggested points: 10, [4.7])
Behavior approach: (Suggested points: 10, [4.8])
Results approach: (Suggested points: 10, [4.9])

Answers:

1. Since performance consists of behaviors, the factors in the job description that define performance include those activities listed under Tasks and Work Activities.  These would be considered task performance dimensions.  The sections labeled Work Context and Work Styles provide information that would be considered contextual performance dimensions.

2. Task performance:  In general, Edith performed the tasks defined for her job correctly.  There might be some question about her establishing interpersonal relationships, although she had no reason to believe a relationship with an emergency room patient needed to be developed or maintained.

Contextual performance:  Her interactions with the patient Lucy Jones led to the following problems:
• Her decision to let Lucy walk barefoot to the restroom could have exposed the organization to liability for injury or infection.  It did expose the organization to negative word of mouth publicity.
• Edith appeared to have difficulty handling the stress of the morning. 
• Her comments were very short and did not express concern for the patient’s needs. 
• Her reaction to being told about the dirty restroom showed both a lack of self-control and a lack of initiative.

3. Edith needs declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and motivation to do her job.  In addition, the unusually busy work environment may have impacted her performance that morning.

Declarative knowledge:  As a registered nurse, Edith has completed all the training required for her position.  She performed most tasks efficiently.  She probably had full knowledge of the hospital’s goals, since they are posted in the halls and lobbies. 

Procedural knowledge:  Edith appears to have most of the skills required for the job.  She may lack some of the interpersonal skills necessary for full procedural knowledge.

Motivation:  Edith was very busy and was expending substantial effort on her tasks.  It is possible that she was so focused on the tasks that she forgot that she was dealing with stressed and frightened patients.  She appeared to lack motivation to stay pleasant even when the patient’s injuries did not appear to require urgent care.

4. Edith does have a performance problem, since her actions consistently indicated a certain lack of consideration for the patient’s safety and peace of mind.  She may need training and practice in the skills of active listening, service orientation, and social perceptiveness defined in the job description.  It is difficult to tell from one incident whether Edith lacked motivation and/or lacked skill.  More observation is required.

5. There are three different approaches to measuring performance.  Employee performance is measured using a single approach or a combination of approaches.

A. The traits approach evaluates the individual performer’s abilities and personality styles.  Generally, such traits are stable over the individual’s life and not subject to change.  In the registered nurse job description, traits to be evaluated could include Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, Interests, Work Styles, and Work Values.  It would be very appropriate to develop screening tools to assess and hire people with the required traits for the position; however, there are several disadvantages to evaluating performance based on traits. 

To begin with, performance is what the employee does–not what the employee is capable of doing or is interested in doing.  Possession of a trait is no guarantee of performance.  In addition, employees may feel that, since improvement in their abilities and interests is not something they can control, it is not fair to measure their performance based on their traits.  In general, the traits approach to measurement is not appropriate for a position like registered nurse (RN).

B. The behaviors approach looks at an employee’s behavior, or what an employee does.  Since performance is what an employee does, one’s initial response might be that it is always appropriate to use this approach.  In general, it is best to use a behavior approach to performance measurement if the following conditions are met:
a. Employees take a long time to achieve the desired outcome
b. The link between behaviors and results is not obvious
c. Outcomes are distant–in the future
d. Poor results are due to conditions beyond the employee’s control

In the job description for registered nurse, behaviors are described under Tasks and Work Activities.  In this case, several of the conditions leading to use of a behavior approach may apply, especially b and d.  There is not a clear link, for example, between patient health and a nurse’s behavior, unless the RN’s behavior is neglectful or in violation of standards.  Even then, some patients will regain their health!  Whether patients get better or worse may have little to do with how well the RN performs his or her tasks.

C. The results approach measures outcomes.  This approach can be useful in assessing the performance of a number of employees–both because results can be tracked more easily and at a lower cost than monitoring behavior and because the surface objectivity of such measurement is usually perceived to be a fair way to assess employee performance. The best times to use such an approach are when:
a. Workers are skilled in the needed behaviors
b. Behaviors and results are obviously related
c. Results show consistent improvement over time
d. There are many ways to do the job right

There are several ways in which the results approach could be appropriately used in assessing the performance of a registered nurse.  RNs are expected to be skilled performers and there are many ways to perform the job correctly.  As noted earlier, behaviors and results may not always be related; however, in most cases, if RNs perform their jobs correctly, most patients will benefit from their care.  It is not clear how results could improve over time with an RN’s performance.

As a result, I would recommend a performance assessment system that measured both behaviors and results for the position of registered nurse.  Some tasks could be measured in a results fashion; e.g., “accuracy and detail of documentation in patient records” and “updating and using relevant knowledge.”  On the other hand, behavior should be assessed in areas such as “interpersonal communication,” “problem-solving,” and “caring for others.”

6. A.  Traits Approach
Knowledge
In general, Edith appeared to have the necessary knowledge of medicine and the English language. It is possible that she did not have necessary knowledge of psychology or customer service when dealing with members of the public who are stressed, frightened, and in pain.
 
Skills:
Her active listening skills, especially, were not apparent in the scenario provided.  There was no information provided with which to assess her reading and writing skills.  She did not appear to use critical thinking, service orientation, or social perceptiveness skills appropriately in the scenario.  She appeared to lack problem sensitivity.  She spoke clearly and appeared to understand the oral information presented to her. 

Work Styles:
In general, her work styles appeared inappropriate to the situation:
•   Her response of “I’m not Housekeeping” demonstrated a lack of  
   self-control, stress tolerance, and initiative. 
•   She did not demonstrate concern for the patient’s needs or a
     cooperative attitude.
•   Several incidents demonstrated lack of attention to detail:
--  Allowing Lucy to walk barefoot on the ER and bathroom
  floors
--  Telling Lucy she could leave her clothing in Room 3 when
  posted signs warned otherwise
--  Writing over the already written discharge instructions so
  that some words were illegible

B.  Behaviors Approach
Edith interviewed Lucy and accurately documented her symptoms and vital signs.  She provided Lucy with the necessary instruction to get ready for the physical examination and the X-rays.  She worked with other patients and promptly arranged for treatments and procedures ordered by the doctor.  She documented and recorded information.  She did not offer assistance to Lucy in changing clothes and in getting down from the cot.  She did not provide emotional support.

C.  Results Approach
• Lucy got better over the next week.
• The documentation of Lucy’s treatment is in order.
• Lucy complained about her observation of unsafe and dirty conditions to the hospital director.
• Lucy described her negative perception of the hospital’s emergency room to many friends and acquaintances, which damaged the reputation of the hospital in her network.

给自信 更公益

中国经济管理大学《公益教育宣言》

中国经济管理大学——每个人都有受教育的权利和义务，不分民族、性别、宗教、语言、社会出身、财产或其它身份等任何区别。　

中国经济管理大学——MBA/EMBA培训不应该仅仅属于富人的专属特权，更不应该让天价学费阻碍为那些有管理潜力普通大众的求学之路。

中国经济管理大学——中国经济管理大学EMBA公益研究生院（免费学堂）勇当教育公益事业先行者，2013继续让公益培训遍结硕果。每月2-4次免费专题培训。

中国经济管理大学——为有潜力的管理人才、培训合格人才免费颁发合格证书，筹建高端管理人才库，让每一位学员享有金牌猎头服务。

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学|中国经济管理大学培训