TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS

This chapter introduces you to presentational, hands-on, and group training methods, which include on-the-job training (OJT) (OJT), simulations and games, lectures, and various group building methods such as action learning and team training. It focuses on the traditional methods of delivering training. While new technologies have brought new methods to deliver training, the traditional methods are still employed in virtually all organizations—often in conjunction with new technologies. The chapter is broken down into “presentation methods,” which are passive delivery methods and include lecture and audiovisual instruction; “hands-on methods,” which actively involve the learner and include on-the-job training (OJT), self-directed learning, apprenticeships, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling; and “group building methods,” which are designed to improve work team or group effectiveness and include adventure learning, team training, and action learning. The important issues to consider in choosing methods of delivery are discussed. A list of key terms, discussion questions, and application assignments are listed at the end of the chapter.

Objectives

1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building training methods.
2. Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training (OJT).
3. Develop a case study.
4. Develop a self-directed learning module.
5. Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training.
6. Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be effective.
7. Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team performance.

I. Introduction

A. Traditional training methods require an instructor or facilitator and involve face-to-face interaction between trainees.
B. Training and development methods such as lectures or online training are directed at the most common needs in a company.
C. Context-based learning, learning that occurs on the job and during the everyday performance of work, tends to be more unique to the employee’s needs and includes training methods such as OJT, simulations, and mobile learning.
D. Both guided competence development and guided contextual learning are usually formal training activities designed and developed by the company to achieve specific learning goals.
E. Social competency development enhances specific job-related competencies through interaction with others such as a mentor or coach, or through encountering challenging job experiences.
F. The competencies that are developed are typically not necessary for successful performance of one’s job but help prepare employees for future roles or positions. As a result, mentoring, coaching, and job experiences are considered development activities.
G. Recently, training and development have emphasized a more active role for the learner because of the increased recognition that the learner is at least as important as the instructor and the learning conditions in determining whether learning occurs.
H. Also, there is increased recognition of the importance of informal learning and the greater availability and use of technology to deliver instruction or social collaboration.

II. Presentation Methods

Presentation methods are methods in which trainees are passive recipients of information, that include facts, processes, and problem-solving methods.

Lecture
A. A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating the material the trainees are to learn.
B. Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and an efficient way to cover a large amount of information and/or to a large group.
C. Lecture can be used to support other methods of delivery as well.
D. Disadvantages of the lecture method include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment, all of which inhibit transfer of training. It also makes it difficult for the trainer to judge quickly and efficiently the learners’ level of understanding. Thus lecture is often supplemented with other more participative methods.

Audiovisual Techniques
A. Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and videotapes.
B. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone it is usually used in combination with lectures. It can be highly effective for addressing communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and for illustrating step-by-step procedures or giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or other methods; it is a major component of behavior modeling and interactive video instruction.
C. The advantages of videos include the flexibility in customizing the video session; the ability of video to show things that cannot be easily demonstrated; its consistency upon repeated use; and it can be used to record trainees’ performance for them to review.
D. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb; poor dialogue or poor acting could hinder the message and/or the credibility of the message; overuse of music or humor; and drama that makes it confusing for the trainee to understand the important learning points emphasized in the video.

III. Hands-On Methods

Hands-on methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process, including those below.

On-the-job Training
A.  On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.
B. OJT is considered informal, because it does not necessarily occur as part of a training program and because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers.
C. OJT can be useful for training newly hired employees, upgrading experienced employees’ skills when new technology is introduced, cross-training employees within a department or work unit, and orienting transferred or promoted employees to their new jobs.
D. OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning, requires less time or money investment.
E. The advantages of OJT are: it can be customized to the experiences and abilities of trainees; training is immediately applicable to the job because OJT occurs on the job using actual tools and equipment; companies save the costs related to bringing trainees to a central location, hiring trainers, and renting training facilities; hence OJT can be offered at any time, and trainers will be available because they are peers or managers; it uses actual job tasks and occurs at work, as a result, skills learned in OJT more easily transfer to the job.
F. The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore, managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and feedback not provided, all resulting in poorly trained employees.
G. OJT must, therefore, be structured to be effective. Table 7.2 on page 285 lists the principles of structured OJT.
H. Successful OJT incorporates the principles of social learning theory as it involves learning by observing others.
I. An effective OJT program includes:
1. A policy statement describing the purpose of the OJT and emphasizing the company’s support of it.
2. A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations.
3. A thorough review of OJT practices (program content, types of jobs, length of program, cost savings) at other companies in similar industries.
4. Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT.
5. Availability of lesson plans, checklists, procedure manuals, training manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms for use by employees who conduct OJT.
6. Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT.

Self-Directed Learning
A. Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places complete responsibility for learning on the employee/learner including  when the learning will take place and with whom. Training content is pre-determined, but trainees can learn the content at their own pace and in their own way. A trainer should be available to answer questions and facilitate the learning process as needed.
B. The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it provides consistent training content that captures the knowledge of experts; it allows for constant access to training materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.
C. The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money.
D. Steps to effective self-directed learning include:
1. Conducting a job analysis to identify the tasks that need to be covered.
2. Writing trainee-centered learning objectives related to the tasks that indicate what information is important, what actions the trainee should take and what the trainee should master.
3. Developing the content for the learning packet based on the trainee-centered learning objectives.
4. Breaking the content into smaller pieces or chunks, each chunk beginning with the objectives that will be covered, involving an opportunity to practice, and a means for trainees to evaluate their learning.
5. Developing an evaluation package, including means of evaluating oneself as well as the learning package. Questions should be developed that address whether trainees have met the objectives and whether the material was user friendly, up-to-date, and appropriate for the objectives.
E. Self-directed learning is likely to become more common in the future as companies seek to train staff flexibly, take advantage of technology, and encourage employees to be proactive in their learning rather than driven by the employer.

Apprenticeship
A. Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training and classroom training and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union. A registered apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and 2,000 hours (or one year) of on-the-job experience. Once their training is complete, apprentices are called journey workers and they earn certification from the U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency.
B. Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn, with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees. From the company’s perspective, apprenticeship programs meet specific business training needs and help attract talented employees.
C. The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the development costs and time commitment that management and journey workers have to make to apprenticeship programs; the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).

Simulations
A. A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
B. Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; allowing for the observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.
C. Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require continuous maintenance and updating.

Case Studies
A. A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently. This approach assumes that employees will learn through this process of discovery.
B. The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers, physicians and many other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they require high trainee participation.
C. Learners must be willing and able to analyze cases and have the ability to communicate their recommendations, so the method requires prior skill in these areas.
D. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation.

Business Games
A. Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, ethics, marketing, and finance.
B. Typical games have the following characteristics:
1. The game involves a contest among trainees or teams of trainees or against an established criterion such as time or quantity.
2. The game is designed to demonstrate an understanding of or application of a knowledge, skill, or behavior.
3. Several alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and trainees can estimate the consequences of each alternative, but only with some uncertainty.
4. Trainees do not know for certain what the consequences of their actions will be because the consequences are partially based on the decisions of other game participants.
5. Finally, rules limit participant behavior.
C. To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in training should be simple enough that trainees can play them in a short period of time.
D.  The best games generate excitement among the participants and interest in the game. Meaningfulness of the game is enhanced if it is realistic.
E. Trainees need to feel that they are participating in a business and acquiring knowledge, skills, and behaviors that are useful on the job.
F. Debriefing from a trainer can help trainees understand the game experience and facilitate learning and transfer. Debriefing can include feedback, discussions of the concepts presented during the game, and instructions in how to use at work the knowledge, skills, or behavior emphasized in the game.

Role Plays
A. Role plays to are a training method that requires the trainees take on a role such as a manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role.
B. To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is critical.

Behavior Modeling
A. Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate through practice. It is based on social learning theory. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a trainee sees a model being reinforced for using certain behaviors.
B. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.
C. Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task.
1. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that are needed to perform a task.
2. Key behaviors for interpersonal skills are not exact behaviors, but rather general behaviors that are useful across situations.
D. The modeling display provides the key behaviors that trainees will practice to develop the same set of behaviors. It is typically done through videotape or computer displays. Effective modeling displays include:
1. Clear presentation of the key behaviors
2. A model that is credible to trainees
3. An overview of the key behaviors
4. Repetition of each key behavior
5. A review of the key behaviors
6. Models using the key behaviors both positively and negatively
E. The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job along with feedback from peers and the trainer. Practice sessions may also be videotaped to allow trainees to observe themselves.
F. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key behaviors back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document specifying situations in which they should use the key behaviors.

IV. Group Building Methods

A. Group building methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness.
B. A team refers to two or more people with specific roles or functions who work together with shared responsibility to achieve a common goal or mission or complete tasks in a company.
C. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.
D. Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning training programs have four stages:
1. Gain conceptual knowledge and theory
2. Take part in a behavioral simulation
3. Analyze the activity
4. Connect the theory and activity with on-the-job or real-life situations

Adventure Learning
A. Adventure learning, which includes outdoor training, drum circles, and cooking classes, is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured outdoor. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones, such as dog sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as rope courses, trust falls, and even simulated high-level activities.
B. To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to the skill objectives of the training. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what was learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation, and how to set goals and apply what was learned on the job.
C. Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.
D. Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.

Team Training
A. Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals.
B. Together the tools and training methods result in strategies for meeting training objectives. The strategies include:
1. Cross-training, or developing an understanding among team members of each other’s tasks and skills so that each member could cover for the others if needed.
2. Coordination training involves training the team how to share information and decision making responsibilities for maximum team performance.
3. Team leader training is the training that the team manager or facilitator receives. It may involve learning how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources.
4. Scenario-based training refers to training that places team members in a realistic context while learning.
5. Guided team self-correction refers to training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing in teams.

Action Learning
A. Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held accountable to carry it out.
B. Six Sigma and kaizen, black belt training programs involve principles of action learning.
1. There are several levels of Six Sigma training, resulting in employees becoming certified as green belts, champions, or black belts.
2. Between training sessions, candidates apply what they learn to assigned projects and then use them in the next training session.
3. After black belts lead several project teams, they can take additional training and be certified as master black belts. Master black belts can teach other black belts and help senior managers integrate Six Sigma into the company’s business goals.
C. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean manufacturing and total quality management. Kaizen refers to practices participated in by employees from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement of business processes.

V. Choosing a Training Method

A. Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and effectiveness under the given circumstances.
B. The following trends can be noted from the matrix for choosing training methods:
1. There is considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the various training methods.
2. Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation (passive) methods.
C. If possible, one may use several different methods within a single training program to capitalize on the different strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer.

Chapter Summary

Companies are using a variety of training methods to guide competency development and contextual learning. Although new technology such as social networks are being used by some companies for training delivery and instruction, most training is still conducted face to face with an instructor. This chapter described for the reader a number of traditional methods for delivering training, from the passive presentation methods to hands-on methods to group building methods. Each has advantages and disadvantages, which are discussed. It gives the reader an exhaustive summary of these methodologies, all of which are still used extensively.

Discussion Questions

1. What are the differences between social contextual learning and guided competency development? Are both types of learning (and associated training methods) necessary? Explain.

Answer: Social contextual learning is informal and peer-to-peer, and it occurs spontaneously on an as-needed basis. It usually involves employees sharing knowledge on issues, problems, and topics related to their current job. Employees have always learned from face-to-face meetings and phone conversations with peers. What is new is that the increased availability and access to phones and tablet computers provide a multimedia, low-cost, easy-to-use, and familiar way to interact with others on using social media such as blogs, wikis, social networks (such as Facebook), and microblogs (such as Twitter). This provides many possibilities for technology-aided social contextual learning.

Guided competency development means that the company has defined a broad set of competencies or skills for positions or for the entire company. Training and development methods such as lectures or online training are directed at the most common needs in the company. (p. 277-278)

2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the lecture, the case study, and behavior modeling?

Answer: A lecture is one of the least expensive, least time-consuming ways to present a large amount of information efficiently in an organized manner. The lecture format is also useful because it is easily employed with large groups of trainees. The disadvantages are lack of trainee involvement, feedback and meaningful connection to the work environment—all of which inhibit learning and transfer of training.

The case study method requires trainees to analyze and critique a description of how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Learners must be willing and able to analyze cases and have the ability to communicate their recommendations. They are especially appropriate for developing higher order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Cases also help trainees develop the willingness to take risks given uncertain outcomes, based on their analysis of the situation. A disadvantage is that the case may not be related to the work situation the trainee will encounter.

Behavior modeling is more appropriate for teaching skills and behaviors than factual information. Trainees observe behaviors demonstrated by a model and vicarious reinforcement. Research suggests that behavior modeling is one of the most effective techniques for teaching interpersonal and computer skills. Behaviors modeling training programs identify the key behaviors, create the modeling display, provide opportunities for practice, and facilitate transfer of training. (p. 280-281; 291-292; 294-295)

3. If you had to choose between adventure learning and action learning for developing an effective team, which would you choose? Defend your choice.

Answer: Student answers would vary. Adventure learning focuses on the development of teamwork and leadership skills through structured activities. It includes wilderness training, outdoor training, drum circles, and even cooking classes. Adventure learning appears to be best suited for developing skills related to group effectiveness such as self-awareness, problem solving, conflict management, and risk taking. It includes demanding activities that require coordination but place less of a physical strain on team members. In adventure training whole work groups participate together so that group dynamics that inhibit effectiveness can emerge and be discussed.

Action learning gives teams or work groups an actual problem, has them work on solving it and committing to an action plan, and then hold them accountable for carrying out the plan. This type of learning teaches the trainees how to work as a team by researching the problem and finding a solution and following through by carrying out the plan. (p. 297-299; 302-304)

4. Discuss the process of behavior modeling training.

Answer: Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for trainees to attempt to replicate through practice. Behavior modeling is based on the principles of social learning theory. It is more appropriate for teaching skills and behaviors than for teaching factual information. Well-prepared behavior modeling training programs identify the key behaviors, create the modeling display, provide opportunities for practice, and facilitate transfer of training.

The activities include an introduction, skill preparation and development, and application planning. Each training session, which typically lasts four hours, focuses on one interpersonal skill such as coaching or communicating ideas. Each session includes a presentation of the rationale behind the key behaviors, a video of a model performing the key behaviors, practice opportunities using role playing, evaluation of a model’s performance in the videotape, and a planning session devoted to understanding how the key behaviors can be used on the job. In the practice sessions, trainees are provided with feedback regarding how closely their behavior matches the key behaviors demonstrated by the model. The role playing and modeled performance are based on actual incidents in the employment setting in which the trainee needs to demonstrate success. (p. 294-295)

5. How can the characteristics of the trainee affect self-directed learning?

Answer: Trainees must be willing and comfortable learning on their own. Trainees must be motivated to learn. The learning process is controlled by the trainee. Trainees master predetermined training content at their own pace without an instructor. (p. 286)

6. What are the components of effective team performance? How might training strengthen these components?

Answer: The three components of effective team performance are knowledge, attitude, and behavior. Research suggests that teams that are effectively trained develop procedures to identify and resolve errors, coordinate information gathering, and reinforce each other.
The following strategies are required to perform effectively:
• Cross training - has team members understand and practice each other’s skills so that members are prepared to step in and take the place of a member who may temporarily or permanently leave the team.
• Coordination training - instructs the team in how to share information and decision-making responsibilities.
• Team leader training - training that the team manager or facilitator receives.
• Scenario-based training refers to training that places team members in a realistic context while learning. This type of team training helps trainees experience the consequences of their actions, make adjustments, accomplish their tasks, and build team self-efficacy (feeling that the team can successfully perform tasks).
• Guided team self-correction refers to training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing in teams. In this type of training, team members observe each other’s behavior and give and receive performance feedback. (p. 299-301)

7. Table 7.11 compares training methods on a number of characteristics. Explain why simulation and behavior modeling receive high ratings for transfer of training.

Answer: The learning method for both simulation and behavior modeling is hands-on method and research has shown that a hands-on method provides a better learning environment and transfer of training than do presentation models. (p. 305)

8. What are some reasons why on-the-job training can prove ineffective? What can be done to ensure its effectiveness?

Answer: Unstructured OJT can result in poorly trained employees, employees who use ineffective or dangerous methods to produce a product or service, and products or services that vary in quality. Due to the unstructured approach Managers and peers may not use the same process to complete a task. They may pass on bad habits as well as useful skills. They may not understand that demonstration, practice, and feedback are important conditions for effective on-the-job training. Also if OJT is too informal, learning will not occur.

Regardless of the specific type, effective OJT programs include:
• A policy statement that describes the purpose of OJT and emphasizes the company’s support for it
• A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations
• A thorough review of OJT practices (program content, types of jobs, length of program, cost savings) at other companies in similar industries
• Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT
• Availability of lesson plans, checklists, procedure manuals, training manuals, learning contracts, and progress reports for use by employees who conduct OJT
• Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, and writing) before OJT (p. 284-285)

9. Why are apprenticeship programs attractive to employees? Why are they attractive to companies?

Answer: Employees find apprenticeship programs attractive for several reasons – they can earn pay while they learn; they are usually effective learning experiences because they involve learning why and how a task is performed through classroom instruction provided by local trade schools, high schools, or community colleges, and finally apprenticeship programs usually result in full-time employment for trainees when the program is completed. From the company’s perspective, apprenticeship programs meet specific business training needs and help attract talented employees. (p. 287)

10. Discuss the steps of an action learning program. Which aspect of action learning do you think is most beneficial for learning? Which is most beneficial for transfer of training? Explain why. Defend your choices.

Answer: Student answers would vary. Several types of problems are addressed in action learning, including how to change the business, better utilize technology, remove barriers between the customer and company, and develop global leaders. Six Sigma and black belt training programs involve principles of action learning. The process appears to maximize learning and transfer of training because it involves real-time problems that employees are facing. Action learning may also include customers and vendors. (p. 302-304)