Chapter 9 – Analyzing Jobs and Work
Chapter 9 – Analyzing Jobs and Work
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中国经济管理大学 《心理学与人力资源管理》 （MBA研究生课程班）Chapter 9 – Analyzing Jobs and Work
韦恩.F.卡西欧（Wayne F. Cascio）美国科罗拉多大学（丹佛校区）商学院Robert H. Reynolds全球领导与管理讲座教授，拥有罗切斯特大学工业与组织心理学博士学位。担任美国心理学会工业／组织心理学分会、美国管理学会、全美人力资源学会等多个组织会士。
赫尔曼·阿吉斯（Herman Aguinis）美国科罗拉多大学（丹佛校区）商学院Mehalchin管理讲座教授。曾担任美国管理学会研究方法分会会长。Chapter 9 – Analyzing Jobs and Work
Overview
Chapter 9 Analyzing Jobs and Work focuses on the purpose, process, method, and application of a job analysis. The chapter begins with the definitions of job analysis terms, transitions to the results of the analyses (job descriptions and job specifications), and includes the empirical evidence for job analysis information’s reliability and validity. Next, the chapter presents various job analysis methods including their strengths, weaknesses, and appropriate situational applications. The chapter concludes with an introduction to the U. S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Network (O*Net) website (online.onetcenter.org). The O*Net content model is discussed as the replacement to the government’s Dictionary of Occupational Titles.
Annotated Outline
I. At a Glance
A. For all work, individual jobs are the foundation.
B. Job analyses provide the documentation and information to complete jobs.
C. All work, therefore, is dependent on the results of job analyses.
D. Job analyses result in
1. Job Descriptions (work to be done)
2. Job Specifications (necessary personal characteristics)
II. Introduction
A. Changes in the world of work
1. Jobs – social artifact
2. Positions – too fixed
3. Skills, competencies – too obsolete
4. Roles – too unitary
B. How should workers perceive themselves?
1. Self-employed contractors
2. Projects workers
3. Multiple teams member
C. Credit these changes to the impact of the internet and other technologies
1. Wireless communications
2. Email
3. Teleconferencing
D. Job analyses remain relevant because
1. People must complete the work
2. People must understand the work to be done
3. Organizations must understand the knowledge, skills, abilities, and personalities of those who complete the work
4. Organizations must know how best to structure and administer the work
E. Job analyses contribute to employment decisions in the areas of
1. Organization design
2. HR Management
3. Work and equipment design
4. Vocational & rehabilitation guidance
III. Terminology
A. From the U. S. Department of Labor
1. Element – smallest unit observable work2. Task – distinct activity for specific purpose
3. Duty – large segment of work
4. Position – one or more duties for 1 person
5. Job – group of positions similar duties6. Job Family – group of jobs with similar worker characteristics
7. Occupation/vocation – similar jobs, different organizations, different times
8. Career – sequence of positions, jobs, occupations for 1 person during working life
B. To define these terms, align method with purpose
1. Activities / attributes
2. General / specific
3. Qualitative / quantitative
4. Taxonomy-based / blank slate
5. Observers / incumbents or supervisors
6. KSAs / KSAOs
7. Single job / multiple jobs comparisons
8. Descriptive / prescriptive
IV. Defining the Job, describing the job
A. To describe or to define a job is to determine1. Job Title – for identification & reporting
2. Job Activities & Procedures
tasks, materials, machinery, interactions, supervision
3. Working Conditions & Physical Environment
heat, lighting, noise, indoor/outdoor, hazards, office space
4. Social Environment
solitary work, group work, interactions
5. Conditions of employment
hours, wages, benefits, opportunities for promotion
V. Job Specifications
A. Job specifications may or may not equal job descriptionsB. Job Specifications define the minimums necessary to perform job
1. Minimum qualifications: MQs
2. May be used as guidelines for recruitment, selection, placement, development3. May be included in Job Descriptions
4. May be separate documents
C. Minimum Qualifications
1. must be fair, equitable, valid, and reliable
2. development methodology:
a. Develop tasks list & KSAs for job
b. Identify group of Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)
c. Separate groups of SMEs
d. SME groups rate the tasks & KSAs
e. SMEs meet to give opinions
f. Job Analysts produce MQ profiles
g. SMEs describe barely acceptable employee & revise MQ profile as needed
3. reliability & validity
a. reliability -task data shows higher reliability than work data
b. analysts show higher reliability ratings than incumbents
c. validity - performance accuracy
d. validity ratings harder to quantify
e. the greater the descriptive data, the higher the validity
VI. Reliability and Validity of Job Analysis Information
A. Reliability
1. reliability - task data shows higher reliability than work data
2. analysts show higher reliability ratings than incumbents
B. Validity
1. validity - performance accuracy
2. validity ratings harder to quantify
3. the greater the descriptive data, the higher the validity
VII. Obtaining Job Information, conducting job analyses
A. Direct observations of job incumbents by analysts
B. Performing & documenting the job by analystsC. Both assume:
1. job is stable over time & situation
2. observations do not distort the jobD. Neither are appropriate for analytical jobs
E. Functional Job Analyses (FJA) are useful for analytical jobs, produce coded jobs
1. what worker does, what work gets done
2. FJAs contain
a. Position – job title
b. Duty - general responsibility
c. Task - exactly what gets done
d. What – to/for whom, to/for what
e. Why – purpose of action
f. How – tools, instructions
g. Worker Functions
3. FJA codings
a. Worker functions
0 Synthesize
1 Coordinate
2 Analyze
3 Compile
4 Compute
5 Copy
6 Compare
b. People functions
0 Mentor
1 Negotiate
2 Instruct
3 Supervise
4 Divert
5 Persuade
6 Speak-signal
7 Serve
8 Take instruction
c. Things
0 Set up
1 Precision
2 Operate, control
3 Drive
4 Manipulate
5 Tend
6 Feed
7 Handle
4. FJA values
a. can be tracked for changes over time
b. can be valued for compensation
c. can be evaluated for training needs
d. can determine education levels
e. can be objective rather biased
F. Interviews
1. Questions should
a. be related to purpose of analysis.
b. be clear & specific.
c. not lead to implied answers.
d. not indicate socially acceptable answers.
e. not ask for information that interviewee would not logically have.
f. not ask for intimate information.
2. improve when
a. interview several job incumbents
b. have several interviewers conduct same interview with same interviewees
c. have several interviewers conduct interviews with different incumbents
d. conducted over time
e. interviews are conducted over varying situations
G. SME Panels
1. May include up to 10 – 20 % of job incumbents, supervisors
2. Should represent race, gender, age, location, culture, shift, & situations
3. Openly discuss – best, good, & worst characteristics per position
4. Need to consider
a. training needs
b. necessary KSAOs
H. Questionnaires
1. Task inventories & checklists
2. Strengths / weaknesses
a. Can be administered to large groups
b. Can collect quantifiable data
c. May be more cost effective
d. May be too expensive to develop unique questionnaires
e. May be subject to misunderstandings
3. Professional Questionnaires with empirical support
a. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
i. more behavior oriented than task oriented
ii. uses statistical analyses for objectivity
iii. 194 job items or job elements, 5 categories
a) information input
b) mental processes
c) work output
d) relationships with other people
e) job context
iv. limitations
a) better suited to blue collar manufacturing jobs
b) behavioral similarities may mask task differences
c) requires college level reading ability
b. Fleishman job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)
i. Ability-requirements taxonomy
ii. 21 cognitive
iii. 10 psychomotor
iv. 9 physical
v. 12 sensory/perceptual
vi. 9 interactive/social
vii. 11 knowledges/skills/abilities
c. Critical Incidents – anecdotal data
i. what led up to the incident and the context
ii. effective and ineffective actions that occurred
iii. consequences actual, perceived, possible
iv. employee situational control
VIII. Other Sources of Job Information and Job Analysis Methods
A. Job Analysis Wizard (JAW)
1. Developed by Lucent Technologies
2. Includes thousands of different work elements
3. Based on broad work- and worker-related dimensions
4. Uses fuzzy logic to determine how new knowledge fits with existing job knowledge
5. Automates the entire job analysis process
B. Personality Assessments as Job Analysis Method
1. Interest is in personality as an indicator of job performance2. Frequently used personality assessment devices
a. NEO Job Profiler based on the Big 5
b. PPRF (personality related position requirements form)
C. Strategic or future-oriented
1. May adapt existing job analysis methods
2. May develop new tools
3. Needs may be identified by
a. Consultants
b. Steering Committees
c. Outside support firms
d. Current organizational members
D. Competency Modeling
1. Focuses on broad characteristics of workers rather than jobs
2. Includes full range of KSAOs
3. Some vagueness with regard to definition of competency
4. May conceive competency analyses along several dimensions
a. Investigation method, data collection
b. Descriptors
c. Links to business goals
d. Reliability, validity
e. Criteria
f. Research process documentation
IX. Interrelationships Among Jobs, Occupational Groups, and Business Segments
A. Basic challenge is how to group jobs for effective organizational performance
B. Important for validation, appraisal, promotions, career planning
C. May look for similarities and for differences
D. May use enterprisewide resource planning software vendors
1. PeopleSoft
2. Oracle
3. SAP
X. Occupational Information – From the Dictionary of Occupational Titles to the O*NET
A. Dictionary of Occupational Titles
1. first published in the U. S. in the 1930s by the Department of Labor
2. last published 1991 & included more than 12,000 jobsB. With the development of the internet, the Department of Labor sponsored
1. Occupational Information Network resulting in the O*Net
2. O*Net
a. is job specific
b. does not allow comparisons for similarities or differences
3. O*Net development is ongoing
4. O*Net information categories
a. Experience
b. Worker requirements
c. Occupational requirements
d. Occupation-specific requirements
e. Worker characteristics
f. Occupational characteristics
Discussion Questions1. Describe some of the choices that need to be made in deciding how to analyze jobs and work. How would you choose an appropriate technique in a given situation? Pages 196, 197
Before deciding how to analyze jobs and the work that needs to be completed, you need to decide on the purpose(s) and use(s) of the information. Purposes and uses may be grouped into four major categories: organization design, human resource (HR) management, work & equipment design, and other. Organization design includes workforce planning and employee role definition. HR management covers job evaluation, recruitment, selection, placement, orientation, training & development, appraisals, promotions & transfers, career path planning, and labor relations. Methods improvement, safety, engineering design, and job design are the areas within work and equipment design. Other job analysis uses include vocational guidance rehabilitation counseling, job classification systems, and HR research. Once the purpose(s) is(are) understood, you can proceed to choosing the best job analysis method.
Keep in mind that there is no one best job analysis method per situation and that the situation specific contingencies and interactions must be considered. However, assuming that these aspects are acknowledged during the decision making process, the following are examples of potentially correct job analysis choices. Activities or attributes – If activities are task oriented, direct observations by analysts and descriptive interviews with incumbents are appropriate. If better descriptions of the individuals who succeed in these jobs are needed, then in-depth interviews with incumbents, professionally developed questionnaires and the administration of personality traits assessments (NEO-BF5, PPRF) of successful performers are appropriate. General or specific – Standardized analysis tools may be appropriate when general information is needed. Collecting analysis information by subject matter experts and from successful incumbents may be more appropriate when detailed information (such as that needed for pre-employment assessment) is required. Qualitative or quantitative – Qualitative analyses are appropriate for planning purposes. Quantitative analyses are better for cross job comparisons. Taxonomy-based or blank slate – The Position Analysis Questionnaire and the Fleishman Ability Requirements Scale are appropriate for general work descriptions that apply to many different jobs. Subject matter experts, trained observers, and job incumbents are better sources for detailed job specific information. Observers, incumbents, supervisors – When needs indicate and money and time permit, the best job analysis approach may include the collection of information from multiple sources and then checking that information for consistency and accuracy. KSAs or KSAOs – When information about knowledge, skills, attributes, and other characteristics are needed about specific jobs, the O*Net may be a good source. The PAQ, the F-JAS, and JAWS are other methods to consider. Competency modeling also may be appropriate. Single job or multiple job comparisons – For a new job, conduct the analysis based the desired outcome(s). When considering one job relative to another or to more than one job, analyze the single job first then look for similarities and differences to the comparison jobs. Descriptive or prescriptive – If the focus is on an existing job then use a descriptive job analysis. If the focus is futuristic, then relate the analysis to the job’s strategic purpose as in its relationship to the organization’s strategic plan and business goals.
2. Develop an outline for a job analysis workshop with a panel of subject matter experts. Pages 195 200, 205, 206, 214
I. Welcome & Introductions of Participants
II. State of the Organization Address by Chief Executive Officer, Chief Personnel Officer, Workshop Sponsor
III. Description of Workshop’s Goals (assume major revision to business plans)
A. Describe Organization’s Job Analysis needs
1. Current operations – need to update job analyses
2. Future operations – need to complete analyses for new jobs
B. Summarize previous job analysis methods –
C. Teach new job analysis method -
D. Present the new jobs analysis results -
IV. Divide into groups/teams by jobs
A. Existing jobs to be updated
B. New jobs to be documented
C. Each group to include 1 to 3 SMEs, 1 to 3 representatives from departments involved, 1 to 3 representatives from HR
V. Provide copies of existing job analysis information per job, copies of existing business plans, copies of new business plans
VI. Review existing organization job analysis methods
VII. Present new job analysis method – use relevant job to this organization’s SMEs
VIII. Divide into small groups to determine the best job analysis method to use per assigned job
IX. Meet as large group to review each group’s decisions, to answer any questions, to clarify any points of confusion
X. Break into groups to complete the analyses
XI. Reconvene to present resulting job descriptions and job specifications
XII. Allow discussions and commitment to new job analyses, agree on follow-up dates
3. Your boss asks you to incorporate personality characteristics into job analysis. How would you proceed? Pages 211, 212
The first decision I would need to make would be to decide whether direct decisions about specific jobs are involved. The next decision I would need to make is whether inferences about the individuals completing this job are involved. From these decisions, I need to clarify whether existing or future jobs are the focus. For existing jobs with incumbents in the positions, I could use the NEO Job Profiler to determine the Big 5 personality traits for successful performers, average performers, and for those who do not meet performance expectations. The Big 5 personality traits include conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion. For the inferential personality decisions, I might use the Personality-Related Position Requirements Form. The PPRF uses the Big 5 and within each of the 5 factors, asks SMEs to infer the relevance of 12 additional personality dimensions. These 12 dimensions include general leadership, interest in negotiation, achievement striving, friendly disposition, sensitivity to interest of others, cooperative or collaborative work tendency, general trustworthiness, adherence to a work ethic, thoroughness and attentiveness to details, emotional stability, desire to generate ideas, and tendency to think things through. The complete the incorporation of personality characteristics into job analysis, I would also compare the personality information to the incumbents’ appraisals and to traceable organizational outcomes, for example, increases in profitability, new customers, new contracts, additional sales, cost savings, and new employees recruited.
4. What are the similarities and differences between competency modeling and job analysis? Pages 194, 197, 213
Competency modeling is a worker-oriented form of job analysis. It tends to take a big picture approach to analyzing the people who hold or who will hold the jobs under consideration. Competency modeling can be compared to job analysis along 17 variables. These variables follow along with an indication as to when competency modeling is more (or less) rigorous.
1. Investigation method, data collection – less
2. Descriptor content type - less
3. Descriptor content development procedure – less
4. Descriptor content detail – less
5. Business goals & research links – more
6. Descriptor content review – less
7. Descriptor content ranking – less
8. Descriptor results reliability – less
9. Criteria retention – less
10. Research process documentation – less
11. Core competencies focus – more
12. Technical skills focus - less
13. Organization fit and job match – more
14. Values and personality orientation – more
15. Content (face) validity – more
16. Training & development applications – more
17. Selection & decision applications –less
5. You have been asked to conduct a job analysis for astronauts working on the international space station. Which technique(s) might be most appropriate in this situation and why? Pages 202 - 214
This job analysis would be a “blast” to complete. Sources for job information include existing astronauts and former astronauts as job incumbents and as subject matter experts. There are video tapes which can be observed by job analysis professionals. There are the engineers and scientists, administrators, and trainers who can consult and provide additional information and opinions. Because astronauts require extensive training and education beyond bachelor degrees and because the astronauts represent significant investments of many parties and because the jobs are extremely risky, it is also appropriate to conduct personality characteristics analyses, physical fitness skills job analysis, and interpersonal skills relevant to the jobs. Questionnaires could be used by both current and former astronauts. Interviews would be appropriate to gather information considered important to the jobs. Strategic analyses are appropriate as the work expected of astronauts will change based on technological advances and actual work experiences.
6. Discuss some of the special problems associated with conducting strategic or future-oriented job analyses. Pages 212, 213
By definition, strategic or future-oriented job analyses are guesses, hopefully best & accurate guesses, but guesses nonetheless. These job analyses can be improved through the thorough understanding of competency modeling and, when appropriate for the situation, through the use of traditional job analysis methods. The particular challenge is in knowing or perceiving which method will yield the most useful results. Additional challenges surround the sources of information and the motivations driving the strategic job analyses. For example, steering committees, boards of directors, consulting firms, and existing employees may recognize and request strategic hob analyses. The probabilities are not high that all of these sources will agree or that they will have the same levels of understanding. With these types of situations the job analyses may use an analysis approach focused on strengths, weakness, opportunities, tasks. These results can be tempered with a subsequent utilitarian analysis of the potential risks and benefits attached to these potential jobs.
7. Go to the O*NET Web site (http://online.onetcenter.org). Develop a profile of five skills or abilities, and find occupations that match it. Pages 214, 215
Answers will vary by student or by person completing the profiles. The procedure to receive the corresponding occupations follows.
1. From the online.onetcenter.org page, click the Skills & abilities link
2. For each of the six skills & abilities categories, click the items which apply to you
Skills & abilities profile categories
Basics
Complex Problem Solving
Resource Management
Social
Systems
Technical
3. Click the Go.
4. Receive the occupations relevant to your choices. Note that beside the choices are indications as to whether these positions are currently in demand and need people to fill the jobs.中国经济管理大学 MBA微课程：免费畅享MBA
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