罗宾斯《管理学原理》

CHAPTER 12 - COMMUNICATION AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
LEARNING OUTCOMES 

After reading this chapter students should be able to:

1. Define communication and explain why it is important to managers.

2. Describe the communication process.

3. List techniques for overcoming communication barriers.

4. Describe the wired and wireless technologies affecting organizational communications.

5. Identify behaviors related to effective active listening.

6. Explain what behaviors are necessary for providing effective feedback.

7. Describe the contingency factors influencing delegation. 

8. Identify behaviors related to effective delegating.

9. Describe the steps in analyzing and resolving conflict.

10. Explain why a manager might stimulate conflict.

11. Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.

Opening Vignette
SUMMARY

What does Radio Shack (a consumer electronics retailer) headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas and Blue Banana (a clothing and body piercing company) headquartered in Cardiff, Wales have in common?  Both made national news in August 2006 about how they’ve used technology in their organizations.   But while many will say good press or bad press, it’s press nonetheless, there’s a clear indication that neither Radio Shack nor Blue Banana care for the press they’ve received.
 With blinding speed, technology-enhanced communications can reach the multitudes in ways that several decades ago was simply inconceivable.  The connectivity that exists today makes these interactions instantaneous.  And they have become great equalizers--in that any organization, large or small, located in a thriving metropolis or in some remote location, can have access to anyone.  The question though, has it also dehumanized global organizations.  That’s the element that quite possibly will link Radio Shack and Blue Banana for years to come.
 Given some issues and restructuring needs in the organization, Radio Shack informed employees that at some point in the future layoffs may be warranted.  Employees were told that while it was anticipated that most of those positions would be at the corporate level, affected individuals would be made aware of management’s decision.  In August 2006, Radio Shack’s management decided to make its first job cuts–400 in all.  But rather than personally notify those employees about to be severed from the organization, Radio Shack management sent the following email:
“The work force reduction notification is currently in progress.  Unfortunately your position is one that has been eliminated.”
 In similar fashion, management at Blue Banana had problems with the work performance of one of its employees.  Having some difficulty reaching the employee (although she was at work), Blue Banana management sent her following text message to her cell phone:
“Hi Katy, it’s Alex from the shop.  Sorry 2 do this by text but I’ve been trying to call u and ur phone has been switched off.  I’ve had a meeting with Jon + Ian and we’ve reviewed your sales figures and they’re not really up to the level we need.  As a result we will not require your services any more.  You will receive your last pay packet on Friday 28th July.  Thank you for your time with us.”
 Are such impersonal messages professional in today’s organizations?  Has technology been used appropriately when one of the more emotional aspects of work (being laid off or fired) is handled in such a degrading way? Most would probably say no to both questions.  It’s clear that while technology can be management’s greatest communications ally, it must also be used with great care.  Respect and dignity for employees–no matter by what means messages are sent--must be paramount. 

Teaching notes
1.  Ask students if they’ve received bad news over email to text messaging.  If yes, how did it feel?  

2.  Given that more and more people are using technology for everything, will it completely replace the need for face to face communication?  Might we become so used to it that it will one day be fine to send messages like those above via electronic means?

3.  Discuss with students a more empathetic way to fire or lay off employees.  Is it possible to make someone feel good while receiving this kind of bad news?

I. UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION

A. Introduction

1. Everything a manager does involves communicating.

2. A manager can’t formulate a strategy or make a decision without information, which has to be communicated.

3. Once a decision is made, communication must again take place.

4. Good communication skills alone do not make a successful manager but ineffective communication skills can lead to a continuous stream of problems for the manager.

B. How Does the Communication Process Work?

1. Communication can be thought of as a process or flow.  (PPT 12-2)

a) Problems occur when there are deviations or blockages in that flow.

2. Communication requires a purpose, expressed as a message conveyed between a source (the sender) and a receiver. It is encoded and is passed by some medium to the receiver, who re-translates the message initiated by the sender. The result is a transference of meaning from one person to another.

a) Exhibit 12-1 depicts the communication process. 

3. Four conditions affect the encoded message: skill, attitudes, knowledge, and the social-cultural system.

4. One’s total communicative success includes speaking, reading, listening, and reasoning skills.

5. Our attitudes influence our behavior. We hold predisposed ideas on numerous topics, and our communications are affected by these attitudes.

6. We are restricted in our communicative activity by the extent of our knowledge of the particular topic.

7. Finally, just as attitudes influence our behavior, so does our position in the social-cultural system in which we exist.

a) Your beliefs and values, all part of your culture, act to influence you as a communicative source.

8. The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding.

9. Our message is affected by the code or group of symbols we use to transfer meaning, the content of the message itself, and the decisions that we make in selecting and arranging both codes and content.

10. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. It is selected by the source.

a) Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages that pertain to the job-related activities of members.

b) Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow the informal channels in the organization.

11. The receiver is the person to whom the message is directed.

12. The message must be translated into a form that can be understood by the receiver. This is the decoding of the message.

a) Just as the encoder was limited by his or her skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social-cultural system, the receiver is equally restricted.

13. The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop.

a) Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether or not understanding has been achieved.

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C. Are Written Communications More Effective Than Verbal Ones? (PPT 12-3)

1. Written communications are tangible, verifiable, and more permanent than the oral variety.

a) Typically, both sender and receiver have a record of the communication.

b) The message can be stored for an indefinite period of time.

c) If there are questions about the content of the message, it is available for later reference.

d) A final benefit of written communication comes from the process itself.

1) More care is taken with the written word than with the spoken word.

2. Written messages have their drawbacks.

a) Writing consumes a great deal of time.

b) Lack of feedback.

D. Is the Grapevine an Effective Way to Communicate? (12-4)

1. The grapevine is the unofficial way that communications take place in an organization.

2. Information is spread by word of mouth—and even through electronic means today.

a) Ironically this is a two-way process—good information passes between us rapidly; bad information even faster. (See Exhibit 12-2)

3. The biggest question focuses on the accuracy of the rumors.

4. Research on this topic has been somewhat mixed.

a) But even then, although the information flowing is inaccurate, it still contains some element of truth.

E. How Do Nonverbal Cues Affect Communications? (PPT 12-5)

1. Some of the most meaningful communications are neither spoken nor written. These are nonverbal communications.

2. Body language refers to gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body.

3. Verbal intonation refers to the emphasis someone gives to words or phrases.

4. The nonverbal component is likely to carry the greatest impact.

a) Research indicates that from 65-90 percent of the message of every face-to-face conversation is interpreted through body language.

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F. What Barriers Exist to Effective Communication? 

1. A number of interpersonal and intrapersonal barriers affect the decoding of a message.

a) Exhibit 12-3 summarizes the more prominent barriers.

2. Filtering refers to manipulating information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

a) As information is passed up to senior executives, the personal interests and perceptions of what is important to those doing the synthesizing are going to cause filtering.

b) The extent of filtering tends to be a function of the number of vertical levels in the organization and the organization culture.

c) The ever-increasing use of e-mail to communicate in organizations reduces filtering because communication is more direct as intermediaries are bypassed.

d) The organizational culture encourages or discourages filtering by the type of behavior it rewards.

3. With selective perception, receivers see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.

4. Information overload happens when individuals have more information than they can sort out and use; they tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information, etc.

5. Emotions—How a receiver feels when a message is received influences how he or she interprets it.

6. Language—The meanings of words are not in the words; they are in us.

a) Employees come from diverse backgrounds and have different patterns of speech.

b) Grouping of employees into departments creates specialists who develop their own jargon or technical language.

7. While we may speak the same language, English, our use of that language is far from uniform.

a) Knowing how each of us modifies the language would help minimize barriers.

8.    Do men and women communicate in the same way?

a) No. The differences may lead to significant misunderstandings and misperceptions.

b) Deborah Tannen found that when men talk, they do so to emphasize status and independence; whereas women talk to create connections and intimacy.

1) Men frequently complain that women talk on and on about their problems.

2) Women criticize men for not listening.

3) When a man hears a woman talking about a problem, he frequently asserts his desire for independence and control by providing solutions.

4) Many women, in contrast, view conversing about a problem as a means of promoting closeness—not to get the man’s advice.

c) Effective communication between the sexes is important for meeting organizational
goals.

1) To keep gender differences from becoming persistent barriers to effective communication requires acceptance, understanding, and a commitment to communicate adaptively.

d) Communication differences can also arise from the different languages that individuals
use to communicate and the national culture of which they are a part.

e) Owing to the emphasis on the individual in countries such as the United States,
communication patterns there are individual oriented and rather clearly spelled out.

1) For instance, U.S. managers rely heavily on memoranda, announcements, position papers, and other formal forms of communication to state their positions on issues.

f) In collectivist countries such as Japan, there is more interaction for its own sake and a
more informal manner of interpersonal contact.

1) The Japanese manager, in contrast to U.S. managers, engages in extensive verbal consultation with employees over an issue first and only later will draw up a formal document.

2) Face-to-face communication is encouraged.

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Ethical Dilemma in Management
Purposefully Distorting Information
SUMMARY

Four ethical dilemmas that managers face relating to the intentional distortion of information.

Incident 1:  You’re an accountant with a large accounting firm.  The CFO would like for you to verify that losses belong to a subsidiary company—and not on the corporate income statement—so the company’s stock prices will not be affected.  What do you do?

Incident 2: You’ve just seen your department’s sales report for last month. Sales are down considerably. Your boss, who works 2,000 miles away in another city, asks how last month’s sales went. What do you tell him?

Incident 3:  You represent a high profile individual that is a friend of a CEO of a company.  Your client tells you to sell those stocks.  The next day news about the company becomes public and drastically reduces the company’s stock price.  What do you tell the Securities and Exchange Commission when they contact you about the incident?

Incident 4: An employee asks you about a rumor she’s heard about employee transfers from New York to Baltimore. You know the rumor to be true. What do you say to your employee?

These four incidents illustrate dilemmas that managers face relating to evading the truth, distorting facts, or lying to others. It might not always be in a manager’s best interest or those of his or her unit to provide full and complete information.

Questions
1. Is it unethical to purposely distort communications to get a favorable outcome?

2. What about “little white lies” that really don’t hurt anybody?

3. Are these ethical?

4. What guidelines could you suggest for managers who want guidance in deciding whether distorting information is ethical or unethical?

Teaching notes
1. Lead a discussion of the questions listed above.

G. How Can Managers Overcome Communication Barriers?

1. See Exhibit 12-4.

2. Why use feedback?

a) Many communication problems can be directly attributed to misunderstandings and inaccuracies.

b) These problems are minimized if the manager uses the feedback loop.

c) Feedback can be verbal or nonverbal.

d) Feedback should include more than yes-or-no answers.

1) The manager can ask a set of questions.

2) The manager can ask the receiver to restate the message in his or her own words.

3) General comments can give a manager a sense of the receiver’s reaction to a message.

4) Actions may speak louder than words.

e) The sales manager example.

3. Why should simplified language be used?

a) Because language can be a barrier, managers should choose words and structure their messages in ways that will make those messages clear and understandable to the receiver.

b) See Exhibit 12-5.

c) Effective communication is achieved when a message is both received and understood.

d) Jargon can facilitate understanding when it is used within a group of those who know what it means, but it can cause innumerable problems when used outside that group.

4. Why must we listen actively?

a) Listening is an active search for meaning, whereas hearing is passive.

b) In listening, two people are thinking—the receiver and the sender.

c) Many of us are poor listeners because listening is difficult, and it’s usually more satisfying to be the talker.

d) Listening—it is often more tiring than talking.

e) Active listening is enhanced by developing empathy with the sender—that is, by placing yourself in the sender’s position.

5. Why must we constrain emotions?

a) They can severely cloud and distort the transference of meaning.

6. Why the emphasis on nonverbal cues?

a) Actions speak louder than words.

b) Nonverbal messages carry a great deal of weight.

7.  Self-Assessment 3.0 # #27 “What’s my Face to Face Communication Style?”

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II. COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

A.  Information technology has radically changed the way organizational members communicate.
1. Significantly improved a manager’s ability to monitor individual and team performance.

2. Allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster decisions.

3. Provided employees more opportunities to collaborate and share information.

4. Made it possible for people in organizations to be fully accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

B. What are the Networked Communications Capabilities? (PPT 12-6 to 12-10)

1. An organization links its computers together through compatible hardware and software, creating an integrated organizational network.

2. E-mail is the instantaneous transmission of messages on computers that are linked together.

3. Instant messaging (IM)—interactive, real-time communication that takes place among computer users who are logged on to the computer network at the same time.

a) Information can be communicated instantaneously.

4. A voice-mail system digitizes a spoken message, transmits it over the network, and stores the message on a disk for the receiver to retrieve later.

5. Facsimile or fax machines allow the transmission of documents containing both text and graphics over ordinary telephone lines.

6. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a way for organizations to exchange business transaction documents such as invoices or purchase orders, using direct, computer-to-computer networks.

7. Teleconferencing allows a group of people to confer simultaneously using telephone or e-mail group communications software; videoconferencing allows for meeting participants to see each other over video screens.

8. Networked computer systems have allowed the development of organizational intranets and extranets.

a) An intranet is an organizational communication network that uses Internet technology but is accessible only to organizational employees.

b) An extranet is an organizational communication network that uses Internet technology and allows authorized users inside the organization to communicate with certain outsiders such as customers or vendors.

9. Finally, the Internet is now being used for voice communication.

C. How Do Wireless Capabilities Affect Communications? (PPT 12-10)

1. Wireless communication relies on signals sent through air or space without any physical connection, using such devices as microwave signals, satellites, radio waves and radio antennas, or infrared light rays.

2. Employees no longer have to be at their desks with their computers plugged in and turned on in order to communicate with others in the organization.

D. How Does Knowledge Management Affect Communications? (PPT 12-10)

1. Part of a manager’s responsibility in fostering an environment conducive to learning and effective communications is to create learning capabilities throughout the organization.

2. An important step is understanding the value of knowledge as a major resource, just like cash, raw materials, or office equipment.

3. Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture in which organizational members systematically gather knowledge and share it with others in the organization so as to achieve better performance.

III. DEVELOPING INTERPERSONAL SKILLS (PPT 12-11)

A. The Importance of Interpersonal Skills

1. A survey of top executives at Fortune 500 companies found that interpersonal skills were the most important consideration in hiring senior-level employees. 

2. Because managers ultimately get things done through others, competencies in leadership, communication, and other interpersonal skills are prerequisites to managerial effectiveness.

B. Why Are Active Listening Skills Important? (PPT 12-11)

1. Listening requires paying attention, interpreting, and remembering sound stimuli.

2. Effective listening is active rather than passive.

a) Active listening requires you to get inside the speaker’s mind so you can understand the communication from his or her point of view.

b) You have to concentrate, and you have to want to fully understand what a speaker is saying.
3. There are four essential requirements for active listening: (1) intensity, (2) empathy, (3) acceptance, and (4) a willingness to take responsibility for completeness.

4. The human brain is capable of handling a speaking rate that is about six times as fast that of the average speaker.

5. Intensity

a) The active listener concentrates intensely on what the speaker is saying.

b) They summarize and integrate what has been said.

c) They put each new bit of information into the context of what preceded it!

6. Empathy requires you to put yourself in the speaker’s shoes.

a) It demands both knowledge of the speaker and flexibility on your part.

b) You suspend your own thoughts and feelings and adjust to your speaker’s world.

7. An active listener demonstrates acceptance.

a) Absorb what’s being said and withhold judgment on content until the speaker is finished.

8. The final ingredient is taking responsibility for completeness.

a) The listener does whatever is necessary to get the full-intended meaning from the speaker’s communication.

b) Listening for feeling as well as for content and asking questions to ensure understanding.

9. Just how, though, can you develop effective listening skills?  (See Developing Your Active Listening Skill.)

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Developing Your Active-Listening Skill

About the Skill
Active listening requires you to concentrate on what is being said.  It involves a concerted effort to understand and interpret the speaker’s message.

Steps in Practicing the Skill
1) Make eye contact.
2) Exhibit affirmative nods and appropriate facial expressions.
3) Avoid distracting actions or gestures that suggest boredom.
4) Ask questions.
5) Paraphrase using your own words.
6) Avoid interrupting the speaker.
7) Don’t overtalk.
8) Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener.

Practicing the Skill
1)Ask a friend to tell you about his or her day and listen without interrupting. When your friend has finished speaking, ask two or three questions if needed to obtain more clarity and detail. Listen carefully to the answers. Now summarize your friend’s day in no more than 5 sentences.
2) How well did you do?
3) Let your friend rate the accuracy of your paraphrase (and try not to interrupt).

Teaching tips
Consider having two students “fish bowl” the exercise and have the class evaluate the accuracy of the paraphrase.
The differences that will be reported from the class will point out the difficulty of active listening.

C. Why Are Feedback Skills Important?

1. If the feedback is positive, it’s likely to be given promptly and enthusiastically.

2. Negative feedback is often avoided, delayed, or substantially distorted.

3. What is the difference between positive and negative feedback?  (PPT 12-12)

a) Managers treat positive and negative feedback differently. So, too, do receivers.

b) Positive feedback is more readily and accurately perceived than negative feedback.

c) Negative feedback often meets resistance.

1) People want to hear good news and block out the rest.

2) Positive feedback fits what people wish to hear and already believe about themselves.

d) You need to be aware of potential resistance and learn to use negative feedback in situations in which it’s most likely to be accepted.

e) Research indicates that negative feedback is most likely to be accepted when it comes from a credible source or if it’s objective in form.

1) Subjective impressions carry weight only when they come from a person with high 
      status and credibility.

4. How do you give effective feedback?

a) See Exhibit 12-6.

b) Focus on specific behaviors.

c) Keep feedback impersonal.

d) Keep feedback goal oriented.

e) Make feedback well timed.

f) Ensure understanding.

g) Direct negative feedback toward behavior that the receiver can control.

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D. What Are Empowerment Skills? (PPT 12-13)

1. Millions of employees and teams of employees are making key operating decisions that directly affect their work.

2. The increased use of empowerment is being driven by two forces.

a) The need for quick decisions by those who are most knowledgeable about the issue.

b) The reality that the downsizing of organizations during the last two decades left many managers with considerably larger spans of control than they had previously.

3. Delegation is the assignment of authority to another person to carry out specific activities. (PPT 12-14)

a) It is a shift of decision-making authority from one organizational level to a lower one.

b) See Exhibit 12-7.

4. In participative decision making, there is a sharing of authority. With delegation, employees make decisions on their own.

5. Don’t managers abdicate their responsibility when they delegate?

a) When done properly, delegation is not abdication.

b) It is not possible for you to do everything yourself.

c) You need to learn to delegate if you are going to be effective in your job.

1) You should expect and accept some mistakes by your employees.

2) Ensure that the costs of mistakes don’t exceed the value of the learning, by putting adequate controls in place.

6. How much authority should a manager delegate?

a) Exhibit 12-8 presents the most widely cited contingency factors to provide some guidance in making those determinations.

b) How do you delegate effectively?

c) Clarify the assignment.

d) Specify employees’ range of discretion.

e) Allow employees to participate.

f) Inform others that delegation has occurred.

g) Establish feedback controls.

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E. How Do You Manage Conflict? (PPT 12-15)

1. The ability to manage conflict is undoubtedly one of the most important skills a manager needs to possess.

2. A study revealed that the average manager spends approximately 20 percent of his or her time dealing with conflict.

3. What is conflict management? 

a) Conflict—perceived differences resulting in some form of interference or opposition.

1) Whether the differences are real is irrelevant—if people perceive differences, then a conflict state exists.

b) This definition includes the extremes, from subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of interference to overt acts such as strikes, riots, and wars.

4. Over the years, three differing views have evolved toward conflict in organizations.

a) See Exhibit 12-9. (PPT 12-16)

b) The traditional view—conflict must be avoided; it indicates a malfunctioning within the organization.

c) The human relations view—conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any organization and rather, has the potential to be a positive force.

d) The most recent perspective—the interactionist view—proposes not only that conflict can be a positive force in an organization but also that some conflict is absolutely necessary for an organization to perform effectively.

5. Can conflict be positive and negative?

a) Functional conflicts support the goals of the organization.

b) Dysfunctional conflicts prevent an organization from achieving its goals.

6. How does a manager tell whether a conflict is functional or dysfunctional?

a) The demarcation is neither clear nor precise.

b) Functionality or dysfunctionality is a matter of judgment.

c) Exhibit 12-10 illustrates the challenge facing managers. 

d) Managers should stimulate conflict to gain the full benefits of its functional properties, yet reduce its level when it becomes a disruptive force.

7. If conflict is dysfunctional, what can a manager do?

a) Know your basic conflict-handling style, as well as those of the conflicting parties, to understand the situation that has created the conflict, and to be aware of your options.

8. What are the conflict-handling styles?

a) Kenneth W. Thomas has given us some insight.

b) One must first determine the intention of the other party.

1) What is the other person’s purpose for causing the conflict?

c) Thomas concluded that one’s response will depend on cooperativeness or assertiveness. (PPT 12-17)

1) Cooperativeness is the degree to which an individual attempts to rectify the conflict by satisfying the other person’s concerns.

2) Assertiveness is the degree to which an individual will attempt to rectify the conflict to satisfy his or her own concerns.

d) Thomas further identified four distinct conflict-handling techniques—plus one middle-of-the-road combination. (PPT 12-18)

1) Competing—assertive but uncooperative.

2) Collaborating—assertive and cooperative.

3) Avoiding—unassertive and uncooperative.

4) Accommodating—unassertive but cooperative.

5) Compromising—midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness.

e) Exhibit 12-11 describes when each is best used. 

f) The skilled manager knows what each tool can do and when each is likely to be most effective.

g) Thomas recognized that the situation itself must dictate the technique.

1) Forcing (Competing) is most appropriate when a quick decisive action is vital or when the people involved take advantage of noncompetitive behaviors.

2)  Collaboration is appropriate when one is attempting to merge insights from different people.

3) Avoidance works well when the potential for disruption outweighs the benefits of resolving the conflict.

4)  Accommodation can assist in issues that are more important to others than to you or when harmony and stability are important to you.

5)  Finally, compromise works well in achieving temporary settlements to complex issues or reaching a solution when time constraints dictate and parties are about equal in power.

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9. Which conflicts do you handle?

a) Not every conflict justifies your attention.

b) Choose your battles judiciously, saving your efforts for the ones that count.

c) Some conflicts are unmanageable.

1) When antagonisms are deeply rooted.

2) When one or both parties wish to prolong a conflict.

3) When emotions run so high that constructive interaction is impossible.

4) Some aren’t worth the effort.

5) Some are outside your realm of influence.

6) Still others may be functional and, as such, are best left alone.

10. Who are the conflict players?

a) Take the time to get to know the players.

1) Who is involved?

2) What interests does each party represent?

3) What are each player’s values, personality, feelings, and resources?

11.  What are the sources of the conflict? 

a) Because your approach to resolving a conflict is likely to be determined largely by its causes, you need to determine the source of the conflict.

b) Research indicates that conflicts can generally be separated into three categories: communication differences, structural differences, and personal differences.

c) Communication differences are disagreements arising from semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and noise in the communication channels.

1) What might at first look like an interpersonal conflict based on poor communication
is usually found, upon closer analysis, to be a disagreement caused by different role
requirements, unit goals, personalities, value systems, or similar factors.

d) Structural differentiation creates problems of integration.

1) The frequent result is conflicts. Individuals disagree over goals, decision alternatives,
performance criteria, and resource allocations.

2)   These conflicts are rooted in the structure of the organization itself.

e) The third conflict source is personal differences.

1) Conflicts can evolve out of individual idiosyncrasies and personal value systems.

2) Factors such as background, education, experience, and training mold each individual into a unique personality with a particular set of values.

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12.  How does a manager stimulate conflict? (PPT 12-19) 

a) The notion of stimulating conflict is often difficult to accept.

b) The evidence demonstrates that there are situations in which an increase in conflict is constructive.

c) Although there is no definitive method for assessing the need for more conflict, an affirmative answer to one or more of the following questions may suggest a need for conflict.

1)   Are you surrounded by “yes people”?

2)   Are employees afraid to admit ignorance and uncertainties to you?

3) Is there so much concentration by decision makers on reaching a compromise that they lose sight of values, long-term objectives, or the organization’s welfare?

4) Do managers believe that it is in their best interest to maintain the impression of peace and cooperation in their unit, regardless of the price?

5) Is there an excessive concern by decision makers for not hurting the feelings of others?

6) Do managers believe that popularity is more important for obtaining organizational rewards than competence and high performance?

7) Are managers unduly enamored with obtaining consensus for their decisions?

8) Do employees show unusually high resistance to change?

9) Is there a lack of new ideas?

13. There is a dearth of ideas on conflict-stimulation techniques.

14. The following are some preliminary suggestions that managers might want to use.

a) The initial step in stimulating functional conflict is for managers to convey to employees the message, supported by actions, that conflict has its legitimate place.

1) This step may require changing the culture of the organization.

b) Use communication to stimulate conflict.

c) Ambiguous or threatening messages also encourage conflict.

d) Another widely used method for shaking up a stagnant unit or organization is to bring in outsiders—either by hiring from outside or by internal transfer—whose backgrounds, values, attitudes, or managerial styles differ from those of present members.

e) Structural variables are a source of conflict.

1) Centralizing decisions, realigning work groups, increasing formalization, and increasing interdependencies between units are all structural devices that disrupt the status quo and act to increase conflict levels.

f) Finally, one can appoint a devil’s advocate.

1) A devil’s advocate is a person who purposely presents arguments that run counter to those proposed by the majority or against current practices.

2) He or she plays the role of the critic, even to the point of arguing against positions with which he or she actually agrees.

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F. What Are Negotiation Skills?

1. Negotiation—a process in which two or more parties who have different preferences must make a joint decision and come to an agreement.  (PPT 12-20)

2. To achieve this goal, both parties typically use a bargaining strategy.

3. How do bargaining strategies differ?

a) Distributive bargaining.

b) Integrative bargaining.

c) Used car negotiation example.

4.  Distributive bargaining

a) Operates under zero-sum conditions.

b) Any gain you make is at the expense of the other person, and vice versa.

c) The essence of distributive bargaining is negotiating over who gets what share of a fixed pie.

d) Probably the most widely cited example of distributive bargaining is in traditional labor-management negotiations over wages and benefits.

e) In distributive bargaining, each party has a target point that defines what he or she would like to achieve.

f) Each also has a resistance point that marks the lowest outcome that’s acceptable.

1) See Exhibit 12-11.

g) The area between their resistance points is the settlement range.

1) As long as there is some overlap in their aspiration ranges, there exists a settlement area in which each one’s aspirations can be met.

h) When engaged in distributive bargaining, your tactics should focus on trying to get your opponent to agree to your specific target point or to get as close to it as possible.

5. A sales representative for a women’s sportswear manufacturer example.

a) The sales-credit negotiation is an example of integrative bargaining.

6. Integrative problem solving operates under the assumption that there is at least one settlement that can create a win-win solution.

a) In general, integrative bargaining is preferable to distributive bargaining because it builds long-term relationships and facilitates working together in the future.

b) Distributive bargaining leaves one party a loser.

c) It tends to build animosities and deepen divisions between people.

7. Why don’t we see more integrative bargaining in organizations?  Because of the conditions necessary for this type of negotiation to succeed.

a) Openness with information and frankness between parties, a sensitivity by each party to the other’s needs, the ability to trust one another, and a willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility.

b) Because many organizational cultures and intra-organizational relationships are not characterized by openness, trust, and flexibility, it isn’t surprising that negotiations often take on a win-at-any-cost dynamic.

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8. How do you develop effective negotiation skills? (PPT 12-21) 

9. The essence of effective negotiation can be summarized in the following seven recommendations.

a) Research the individual with whom you’ll be negotiating—Acquire as much information as you can about the person’s interests and goals.

b) Begin with a positive overture—Research shows that concessions tend to be reciprocated and lead to agreements.

c) Address problems, not personalities—Concentrate on the negotiation issues, not on the personal characteristics of your opponent.

d) Pay little attention to initial offers—Treat an initial offer as merely a point of departure.

e) Emphasize win-win solutions—Frame options in terms of your opponent’s interests.

f) Create an open and trusting climate—Skilled negotiators are better listeners, ask more questions, focus on their arguments more directly, are less defensive, and have learned to avoid words or phrases that can irritate the person with whom they’re negotiating (such as a “generous offer,” “fair price,” or “reasonable arrangement”).

g) If needed, be open to accepting third-party assistance—When stalemates are reached, consider the use of a neutral third party—a mediator, an arbitrator, or a conciliator.

1) Mediators can help parties come to an agreement, but they don’t impose a settlement.

2) Arbitrators hear both sides of the dispute, then impose a solution.

3) Conciliators are more informal and act as a communication conduit, passing information between the parties, interpreting messages, and clarifying misunderstandings.

G. What is an Effective Presentation?

1. The ability to deliver effective presentations is an important skill for career success.

2. How do you make a presentation? (PPT 12-22)

a) Prepare for the presentation.

b) Make your opening comments.

c) Make your points.

d) End the presentation.

e) Answer questions.

3. What about delivery issues?

a) There are a number of debates on the importance of delivering an effective presentation.

b) Don’t make the assumption that your speech has to be perfect.

c) Be natural in your presentation, but address what’s important to the listener.

d) If your audience is interested in what you have to say, they’ll listen.

e) Any quirks in your mannerisms or your delivery will not matter greatly.

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Review, Comprehension, Application
Chapter Summary

1. Communication is the transference and understanding of meaning and is important because everything a manager does requires that information be communicated.

2. The communication process begins with a communication sender who converts a message into symbolic form and passes via a channel to the receiver, who decodes the message. Feedback acts as a check on whether understanding has been achieved.

3. Some techniques for overcoming communication barriers include using feedback, simplifying language, listening actively, constraining emotions, and watching nonverbal cues.

4. Information technology has effectively aided communications in organizations through wired and wireless technologies.  Wired technologies include e-mail, instant messaging, voice mail, fax, electronic data interchange, intranets, extranets, and the talking Internet.  This wireless side includes signals sent through air or space without any physical connection using such things as microwave signals, satellites, radio waves and radio antennas, or infrared light rays.

5. Behavior related to effective active listening are making eye contact, exhibiting affirmative nods and appropriate facial expressions, avoiding distracting actions or gestures, asking questions, paraphrasing, avoiding interruption of the speaker, not overtalking, and making smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener.

6. In order to provide effective feedback, you must focus on specific behaviors; keep feedback impersonal, goal oriented, and well timed; ensure understanding; and direct negative feedback toward behavior that the recipient can control.

7. Contingency factors that guide managers in delegating include the size of the organization, the importance of the duty or decision, task complexity, organizational culture, and qualities of subordinates.

8. Behaviors related to effective delegating are clarifying the assignment, specifying the employees’ range of discretion, allowing the employee to participate, etc.

9. The steps to be followed in analyzing and resolving conflict situations include finding out your underlying conflict-handling style, selecting only conflicts that are worth the effort and that can be managed, evaluating the conflict players, assessing the source of the conflict, and finally, choosing the conflict-resolution option that best reflects your style and the situation.

10. A manager might want to stimulate conflict if his or her unit suffers from apathy, stagnation, a lack of new ideas, or unresponsiveness to change.

11. Distributive bargaining creates a win-lose situation because the object of negotiation is treated as fixed in amount. Integrative bargaining treats available resources as variable and hence creates the potential for win-win solutions.

Companion Website
We invite you to visit the Robbins/DeCenzo Companion Website at www.prenhall.com/robbins for the chapter quiz and student PowerPoints.

 Diversity Perspectives: Communication and Interpersonal Skills,  by Carol Harvey and June Allard
1. In terms of the communication process model, explain how the members of the committee could see the same performance-simulation test, but have such different perceptions of these two candidates’ performances?  Could any gender bias be operating here? Why or why not?
     The two applicants (senders) encoded their messages very differently: Marc used more informal spoken and non-verbal body language than Tenley. In addition, Tenley suplemented her message with written communication (Power Point slides, written report, etc.) One committee member was working on unrelated paperwork and another arrived late and interrupted the presentation. Such distractions are considered as “noise” in the communication process model. As these messages were being decoded by the receivers subjective perceptions could cause distortion. People construct meanings from their own interpretations of sensory data. Attribution theory holds that as individuals we judge others according to our own interpretations of what the behaviors mean. These perceptions are not necessarily accurate because we may make fundamental attribution errors, i.e., underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of personal factors.  In this scenario, Tenley’s behavior may be seen as too assertive or pushy (for a woman) but considered appropriate for a male sales rep. (See question #3 below.)  Tenley is applying for an atypical position for a female, selling heavy construction equipment. Plus, she adopted a more assertive communication style, very useful for a major accounts sales rep but often not what is expected from a female job applicant.

2. Based on the performance-simulation test, who appears to be the better candidate for the job as it is described here?
      Since the job description called for someone with the skills to deal with major national accounts, Tenley’s more formal business like presentation appears to be a better match for the position.

3.  Reverse the names of the candidates and their described behaviors and answer
 question #2 again.
     If any gender bias is operating here, discussion on this question may reveal it. Think about Tenley sitting on the desk, drinking a soda, talking about sports and coming in without a written proposal. This behavior might be decoded as her being incapable of handling major accounts. If Marc came prepared with Power Point slides, a written proposal, and behaved assertively as she did, would this behavior be as apt to be decoded as “too pushy” and as not fitting into the organization?  Possibly not because these behaviors are more expected from males than females.

4. In this scenario, cite examples of how this conflict over which candidate to hire could become functional or dysfunctional?  What is the best conflict management style for the manager to use to resolve this dilemma?
In this situation, functional conflict would involve a frank discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of each candidate as they relate to matching the applicant’s qualifications and skills to the responsibilities outlined in the job description. During the discussion, the manager or chair of the committee should keep the communication focused and unbiased.
Dysfunctional conflict could occur if the members of the committee are uncooperative and refuse to consider others’ ideas.  It is important to remember that Harrington Industries has never had anyone in a position of this level calling on major national accounts. Committee members may be putting too high a value on hiring someone like current employees.
Personal and communication differences appear to be the source of this conflict. In terms of this hire Harrington Industries is facing a unique situation. It is crucial that the committee hire the right person to implementing the organization’s new major accounts strategy. Consequently, in this situation the manager or chair of the committee needs to use a collaborative conflict management style.

Note: This situation is based on an actual performance-simulation test for a new faculty member.  All of the behaviors described here actually happened. The committee chose the male applicant citing the reasons given in this case. The day that the job was going to be offered to him, the position was withdrawn due to other staffing issues. The female applicant went on to a tenure track position at another college and the male applicant still is working as an adjunct professor.

Reading for Comprehension
1. Which type of communication do you believe is most effective in a work setting? Why?
Answer – Each communication method has its own benefits and drawbacks. No one method is appropriate in all circumstances. For example, written communications are tangible, verifiable, and more permanent than the oral variety. Typically, both sender and receiver have a record of the communication. The message can be stored for an indefinite period of time. If there are questions about the content of the message, it is available for later reference. A final benefit of written communication comes from the process itself. More care is taken with the written word than with the oral word. Writing consumes a great deal of time.

E-mail is one of the most widely used methods for organizational members to communicate. E-mail is fast, convenient, cheap, and can be used to send the same message to dozens of people at the same time. But it’s also public information, and as such should not be used to discuss sensitive issues like performance appraisals, disciplinary issues, or other confidential topics.

2. Why are effective interpersonal skills so important to a manager’s success?
Answer – A comprehensive study of people who hire students with undergraduate business degrees and depend on these hires to fill future management vacancies found that the area in which the graduates were most deficient was in leadership and interpersonal skills. A survey of 191 top executives at six Fortune 500 companies found that the single biggest reason for failure was poor interpersonal skills. The Center for Creative Leadership in North Carolina estimates that half of all managers and 30 percent of all senior managers have some type of difficulty with people.

3. How has information technology enhanced a manager’s communication effectiveness?
Answer - It has significantly improved a manager’s ability to monitor individual and team performance, allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster decisions; provided employees more opportunities to collaborate and share information; and made it possible for people in organizations to be fully accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

4. What is conflict?  Should some conflict be encouraged?
Answer – A study revealed that the average manager spends approximately 20 percent of his/her time dealing with conflict. Conflict—perceived incompatible differences resulting in some form of interference or opposition. This definition includes the extremes, from subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of interference to overt acts such as strikes, riots, and wars.  Functional conflicts that support the goals of the organization are good and should be encouraged.  Managers should stimulate conflict to gain the full benefits of its functional properties yet reduce its level when it becomes a disruptive force.

5. Contrast the traditional, human relations, and interactionist views of conflict. Which of the three views do you think most managers have? Do you think this view is appropriate?
Answer – Over the years, three differing views have evolved toward conflict in organizations. See Exhibit 12-8. The traditional view—conflict must be avoided; it indicates a malfunctioning within the organization. The human relations view—conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any organization and rather, has the potential to be a positive force. The most recent perspective—the interactionist view—proposes not only that conflict can be a positive force in an organization but also that some conflict is absolutely necessary for an organization to perform effectively.

Students’ responses will vary but most will probably answer the traditional view. Also, their view of the value of conflict and its need may be more a function of their personalities rather than information. Help students see that it is not necessarily their personal preference that is best, but that the nature of the conflict itself may determine the best approach to use.

6. What are the five primary conflict-resolution techniques?
Answer – Kenneth W. Thomas identified four distinct conflict-handling techniques—plus one.
 Competing—assertive but uncooperative.

 Collaborating—assertive and cooperative.

 Avoiding—unassertive and uncooperative.

 Accommodating—unassertive but cooperative.

 Compromising—midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness.

Exhibit 12-11 describes when each is best used. The skilled manager knows what each tool can do and when each is likely to be most effective. Thomas recognized that the situation itself must dictate the technique.

 Competition is most appropriate when a quick decisive action is vital or when the people involved take advantage of noncompetitive behaviors.

 Collaboration is appropriate when one is attempting to merge insights from different people.

 Avoidance works well when the potential for disruption outweighs the benefits of resolving the conflict.

 Accommodation can assist in issues that are more important to others than to you or when harmony and stability are important to you.

 Finally, compromise works well in achieving temporary settlements to complex issues or reaching a solution when time constraints dictate.

7. What can a manager do if he or she wants to be a more effective negotiator?
Answer – The essence of effective negotiation can be summarized in the following six recommendations:
 Research your opponent. Acquire as much information as you can about your opponent’s interests and goals.

 Begin with a positive overture. Research shows that concessions tend to be reciprocated and lead to agreements.

 Address problems, not personalities. Concentrate on the negotiation issues, not on the personal characteristics of your opponent.

 Pay little attention to initial offers. Treat an initial offer as merely a point of departure.

 Emphasize win-win solutions. Frame options in terms of your opponent’s interests.

 Be open to accepting third-party assistance. When stalemates are reached, consider the use of a neutral third party—a mediator, an arbitrator, or a conciliator.

Linking Concepts to Practice
1. “Ineffective communication is the fault of the sender.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your position.
Answer – Students’ responses will vary but the perspective of the text lays most of the responsibility on the sender. While both sender and receiver are affected by their own bias, experience, etc., the sender is responsible for adapting the message for maximum fidelity in its transmission and interpretation.

2. Describe why effective communication isn’t synonymous with agreement between the communicating parties.
Answer – Communication and agreement are two different things. The former means that what we are saying is clear and understood. The latter means that we are in accord. One can understand another yet not agree with them.

3. “As technology improves, employees will be working more, be accessible to employers more, and be suffering from information overload.”  Do you agree or disagree with this statement?  Defend your position.
Answer – Student responses will likely vary but many students may support this statement.  Wired and wireless technology can make employees accessible to employers 24/7 regardless of where the employee or employer may be located.  E-mail is easy to send so more and more people receive messages that if they were being sent on paper would go to fewer people.  Employees receive e-mail from top managers, middle managers, supervisors, co-workers, customers, vendors, etc.  The 24/7 issue also applies to e-mail.  At what point is there a break between work and home?

4. How might a manager use the grapevine to his or her advantage?  Support your response.
Answer – The grapevine is the unofficial way that communications take place in an organization.  Information is spread by word of mouth—and even through electronic means today.  Although the information flowing is inaccurate, it still contains some element of truth.  So, a manager can find out what the employees know or are talking about, i.e., what is important to them.

5. Using what you have learned about active listening in this chapter, would you describe yourself as a good listener? Are there any areas in which you are deficient? If so, how could you improve your listening skills?
Answer – Students’ responses will vary.

6. Assume that you found an apartment that you wanted to rent and the ad had said: “$750/month negotiable.” What could you do to improve the likelihood that you would negotiate the lowest possible price?
Answer – Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties who have different preferences must make a joint decision and come to an agreement. Begin by using an integrative problem-solving approach which assumes that there is at least one settlement that can create a win-win solution. It builds long-term relationships and facilitates working together in the future. Be open with information and frank; be sensitive to the other’s needs, trust, and flexibility.

Integrative Chapter Skills
Two Great Teams, One Great Organization
Purpose: The purpose of this case is to introduce the students to the difficulties often associated with trying to select various individuals into positions within a team. The case also reveals the multi-level nature of team formation wherein selections for positions are based on individual matches but selections across positions lead to a different level of concern.

Have students read the following scenario, and then after they’ve completed the reading divide them into groups for the Group Task (indicated below)

You are a consulting firm hired by the board of directors for a successful biotechnology firm that has been in existence for 15 years. Several of you were part of the initial business based on product (A) that has brought a majority of the revenue and generated much of the growth in the firm. Now, this product is what one would consider a cash cow. Its growth potential is someone limited and the leadership related to this product is more about efficiency and maintaining market share than it is about growth. Over the past five years your company has been pushing two new products (B and C) that are in emerging markets. These products are much more risky and volatile in relative to your first major product. However, this is where the new growth for the firm will be.
 The current structure of the top management teams has been based on one 7- person team that reports to a single CEO. The CEO and the board of directors have decided that a new organization organizational structure needs to be implemented which consists of two 3-person teams as diagrammed in figure 1. The central theme of this new team structure is that the CEO wants to meet with two separate teams that will handle the two general business models he sees as the cash cow versus the growth aspect of the firm. The CEO wants to create one 3-person team that would share responsibilities for product (A), and one 3-person team to handle the growth side of the company. Among the growth side of the company the CEO would like to put one person in primary charge of the growth of product (B) and one person in charge of the growth of product (C). The 7 current members with a short description of their personality and competence follows:

Person 1. Lily Lee (38, female, MBA), Lily has been a valued member of the team for several years now. She was the chief finance officer of the company and is thought of as highly competent. Lily graduated from a top MBA program and you feel that she eventually might have substantial leadership potential. However, she is a bit quiet by nature and does not seem to like situations with conflict. You are not sure if this can be attributed to the aggressive nature of some of the other members of the top management team.

Person 2. Steve Brazen. (40, male, BBA), Steve is often thought of as the mirror opposite to Lily. He often brags about graduating from a non-descript State college. He reached this position through sales and marketing. He is faced paced and energetic. However, he has had more reports quit under him than other board members. He tends to be impatient with incompetence. Although he is sometimes thought to be less intelligent than other board members, your impression of him is that he is able to pick things up pretty quickly.

Person 3. Arnold Swartz. (48, male, MBA), Arnold at 6 foot 7 with a booming voice is quite the presence in the organization. Similar to Steve he is quite aggressive. He was one of the original members of the organization and likes to call himself the old-timer. In general he is competent, but you don’t find him to be intellectual at all. In fact, it seems sometimes he is unable to grasp complex situations and you feel too often relies on his imposing presence to get results.

Person 4. Malan Swaminathan (44, female, MBA), Malan comes from a well-off and high class Indian family. She is sharp and intelligent, but you find that she is often distracted and among the top managers she is by far most prone to disappear for lengths of time. For example, last month she took off for two weeks for what was termed a scouting expedition, that you later found out was more to do with a potential vineyard her family was considering to purchase versus product sales. Nonetheless, she often seems to succeed at whatever she puts her mind to. Individuals will sometimes refer to her in a half-mocking, half-admiring term ‘the ice princess.’ She actually seems to enjoy this nickname. She tends to command attention wherever she goes.

Person 5. Aurelio Rodriquez (50, male, MBA), has been with the company for only a short time. He came is as a well regarded engineer. He tends to work long hours and is focused on product development. Although he is certainly knowledgeable about technical matters regarding the companies products he does not seem to promote a sense of leadership or urgency about any matters that go beyond engineering. He is fiercely prideful of his nickname from his previous company “the mule” that was bestowed in large part to the great number of hours he tends to work.

Person 6. Bob Bennet (58, male, BBA) Bob has been around the organization along with Arnold since the inception. He is well-known to be dutiful, responsible and reliable. He has never received excellent reviews or appraisals, but has always come through and accomplished what was asked. He never misses meetings but can go through several without saying a word. Around the organization he is well-liked and can often be seen conversing with lower level employees sharing tales about fishing or the state of the professional sports teams.

Person 7. Joe Labianca (36, male, MBA) Joe is the youngest and perhaps the most talented member of the team. He is considered very knowledgeable regarding all three product lines. Twice in the past year you have had to fend off other companies trying to hire him away from you. He has leveraged this very well and is now paid substantially more than the other board members. You note that this has caused some level of resentment, although the board is professional. In terms of actual accomplishments, you can’t recount any particular one. He is thought to be one of the rare individuals that have talent with both technical knowledge and the ability to translate this knowledge through sales.

Group Task
Your task has two parts, your first task is to consider the 7 current board members and place them in the appropriate positions within the firm. For each of the individuals that you place into a position, describe your rationale briefly. Specifically, for the 3 leadership positions consider why you chose one individual over that of the others. Also, one individual will have to be asked off of the leadership team. You will have to spend considerably more time reflecting on why this particular individual was chosen over the others.
After you have chosen the various members of the team reflect on the two teams and the personality characteristics of the new members. What type of team do you foresee occurring? What type of culture and interactions will emerge? How will the two teams differ in how they approach and handle problems? Are their approaches going to match the needs of the organization? Over time, should Product (A) team members be paid similarly to new product team members? Why or why not.

Teaching Tips
At first glance, students may wonder what this team formation/org structure problem has to do with this chapter on Communication.  As the instructor, you’ll need to point them towards the different parts of the communication process and how each of the characters they select for each team will influence those different parts of the process.  Ask students to consider material from other chapters in forming their answer to this case---they’ll want to reflect on team member roles, personality, group dynamics, task complexity, human resources, etc.  Leadership can also be covered by this case---ask students what leadership style and actions they recommend this CEO take to inform team members of the change.  Regarding the links to this chapter, ask students to speculate on the kinds of conflict handling styles each individual has, and how the teams they form are likely to resolve conflicts (given those styles).  Finally, the question about whether the teams should be paid equally or not can be used to have students revisit equity theory and other motivation theories; it can also raise the question of strategic importance in the case of a cash cow versus growth product. 
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