中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记：《品质管理学》：Quality and Innovation in Product and Process Design
Quality and Innovation in Product and Process Design
中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學
Quality and Innovation in Product and Process Design
Chapter Outline:
• Designing Products for Quality
• The Design Process
• Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
• Technology in Design
• Other Design Methodologies
• Designing for Reliability
• Environmental Considerations in Design
Overview
Prior chapters indicated that quality should be designed into the product, not added in. This chapter discusses the design process and how quality is an integral part. The point is made that poor quality can be an annoyance or a catastrophe. If a car battery does not hold a charge, the problem is annoying. However if a replacement heart valve fails, the negative results are major.
As life cycles for products become shorter, a focus on quality in the product design process is necessary to remain competitive. Many of the dimensions of quality discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 are addressed in the design phase of the product life. By focusing on issues such as maintainability, assembly, reliability, and product traceability, we are able to continually improve our ability to make things.
Companies have implemented these processes with great results. These results have facilitated huge increases in production capacity, coupled with a reduction in cost. However, a company that does not become better at design will simply not be competitive in the future.
Discussion Questions
1. Product idea generation initiates the process of designing a product by generating ideas from external and internal sources. What are some examples of external and internal sources that are used in this process?
Internal sources are available within the company. The text identifies: marketing, management, research and development (R&D), and employee suggestions.
External sources are sources that are external to the company. The customer is the primary source for ideas; other external sources include: original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), contract manufacturers, industry experts, consultants, competitors, suppliers, and inventors.
Project idea generation is the first step of the Project Development Process. This process is described in Figure 7-2.
2. Discuss the concept of consumer future needs projection. Does a firm that excels in this area have a competitive advantage? Please explain your answer.
Consumer future needs projection, step two of the project development process, uses data to predict future customer needs. The text uses the example of Intel, maker of the microprocessors for personal computers, who has mastered this process. This skill allows Intel to stay on top of a rapidly changing technical environment. A company that can accurately predict the trends in their products will have the advantage of being proactive rather than reactive.
3. What is a technology feasibility statement? Why is it important?
Step three of the project development process includes a statement of feasibility. The general question is: does the state of the art allow the product or process to be created. This step includes such issues as: manufacturing imperatives, limitations in the physics of materials, special considerations, changes in manufacturing technologies, and conditions for quality testing a product.
The technology feasibility statement quite simply asks the question – can this be done?
4. Briefly describe the role of computer-aided design (CAD) in the product design process. How has CAD changed the way that product designers go about their jobs?
Not too long ago, design meant an acre or two of draftsmen drawing plans by hand. Today’s software has relegated that technique to the dustbin. Computer Aided Design (CAD) has simplified and streamlined the task of design. A CAD design can also be modeled by the computer, saving the expense of creating mockups and analyzing them. CAD also integrates with Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), thus integrating the entire process. The design is created using the computer, and is then fed into the assembly “robots” which create the product. Much of today’s automobile industry operated this way.
On page 167 the text says:
… auto designers once had to place mock-ups of automobiles into wind tunnels to test the aerodynamics of a design. However, now the wind resistance coefficients for automobiles can be simulated on computers, cutting costs and design times and allowing for quick adjustments to the design. CAD systems help to develop more reliable and robust designs.
Computer aided tools like CAD improve the ability of designers to generate new and varied designs. In addition, the design process is simplified. For example, whereas auto designers once had to place mock-ups into wind tunnels to test the aerodynamics of a design, the wind resistance coefficients for automobiles can now be modeled on computers.
CAD has replaced many of the traditional tools used by designers. No longer are the tools of the designer a square, a pencil, and a drafting table. Today, most designers work at computer terminals and use CAD or similar computer applications.
Currently the industry is using multi-user CAD systems that allow many people to work on a single design concurrently in spite of geography or local time. Designers in the US, Europe, and Asia can effectively work on the same project.
5. Describe the concept of concurrent engineering. How does concurrent engineering improve the product design process?
Concurrent engineering refers to the practice of performing steps in the product design process simultaneously rather than sequentially. The benefits of concurrent engineering primarily include communication and speed. By working on products and processes simultaneously, fewer mistakes are made and the time to get concept to market is reduced drastically.
6. The product life cycle for many products is getting shorter. In what ways does this trend complicate the product design process? Can you think of any advantages to shorter product life cycles for firms that have exemplary product design processes?
As the product life cycle gets shorter, we are finding the roadway more complex. Many products evolve so quickly that they wind up competing with themselves. On page 172 the text states:
… product life cycles are becoming shorter. This means that obsolescence is a greater problem for designers and that the speed at which new product concepts are delivered to market is becoming much more important for companies around the world. The second imperative is that as product life cycles shorten, product variety and change become much more important to the successful competitor because complementary products are needed to consume productive capacity.
As product life cycles shorten, the problem of obsolescence becomes more obvious. New products on the shelves make the old product less appealing.
7. What is the role of complementary products in managing the product life cycle?
Complementary products use similar technologies but have a feature that differentiates them. Bringing out a new product can extend the life on an existing product. A complementary product can take basic technology and apply it for a new use. The text uses the example of motorcycles and snowmobiles. These machines use similar technology, however have decidedly seasonal uses. The assembly line can run year round with minor modification.
8. What is meant by design for manufacture?
On page 172, the text asks: Now that we have designed it, can we make it? Another name for this situation is “as designed – as built” situation. No matter how well a product has been designed, it must able to be successfully manufactured. Operations people need to be involved in the design process. Traditionally, these departments were isolated from each other. If the communications are made simple, a better product will be produced.
9. The design for maintainability concept states that a product should be designed in a way that makes it easy for a consumer to maintain it. What product attributes make it easy for a product to be serviced or maintained?
A common complaint today is that products are cheaper to discard than fix. A computer printer can be found for under $50.00 with a bit of research. The ink cartridges can cost about the same price. Where is the incentive to keep the printer? On page 175 the text provides a list of factors that should be considered when “designing for maintainability”:
• Components that are easily replaced
• Components that are easily removed with standard tools
• Adequate space to perform the maintenance function
• Nondestructive disassembly
• Safe maintenance
• Available adequate owners manuals and documentation (e.g., wiring diagrams, help facilities, or videos showing how to perform minor repairs)
As products become more complex, the probability that they will require maintenance becomes higher. A company that has planned for that maintenance will keep its customers.
10. What is the over-the-wall syndrome? How can the over-the-wall syndrome be avoided?
Today’s complex products are generally constructed of many sub-systems. These sub-systems must operate together. For example, in a car you will have the fuel system, the transmission, the drive train and the cooling system. These systems operate interactively. A point where they do not interface well could spell failure.
The “over-the-wall” syndrome occurs when the engineers who are responsible for producing the various sub-systems do not effectively communicate. Department A designs system A and then throws it “over-the-wall” for Department B to design system B. The Design For manufacture (DFM) method directly addresses this potential problem. Under DFM, there is an established procedure for multiple departments working on the same product. There is also a procedure for re-working a design that does not fit with another assembly or system optimally.
11. Define component reliability and system reliability. What is the major difference between these two concepts?
Component reliability is defined as the “probability” that an individual component will fail during its anticipated lifespan.
System reliability refers to the probability that a system of components will function over their anticipated lifespan. System reliability is a factor of the reliability of multiple components
12. Describe the concept of failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA). What is the end result of an FMEA analysis? What are some of the ancillary benefits that can be derived through engaging in FMEA?
The texts definition, on page 177, is:
Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) systematically considers each component
of a system, identifying, analyzing, and documenting the possible failure modes within
a system and the effects of each failure on the system. It is a bottom-up analysis beginning at the lowest level of detail to which the system is designed and works upward.
FMEA is a systematic procedure that identifies and documents the possible failures within a system and the effects of these failures. Page 177 lists some
of the advantages of FMEA as:
1. Improvement of the safety, quality, and the reliability of product
2. Improvement of a company’s image and its competitiveness
3. Increased satisfaction from a user standpoint
4. Reduction in product development cost
5. Record of actions taken to reduce a product risk
FMEA is an integral part of Six Sigma, which is covered in Chapter 1.
13. What is the primary purpose of conducting a fault-tree analysis?
As with FMEA, fault-tree analysis is an organized manner of analyzing potential areas for the occurrence of fault. FTA graphically describes the possible combination of various faults that can lead to system-wide failure.
While a specific component failure might not bring a system down, a combination of these component failures can result in system failure (see question 11). FTA provides a graphic manner of identifying these combinations.
14. Describe a method for identifying ways in which an engineered system could fail. What is the primary goal of this method of analysis?
Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) is another manner of identifying potential failures. FMECA is essentially an extension of FMEA. FMECA however, locates each possible failure, assigns the probability of failure and allows the assignment of priorities.
On page 180, the text provides a list of the steps involved in FMECA:
1. A description of the product’s function
2. Listings of the potential failure modes
3. Potential effects each failure mode could have on the end user
4. Potential causes of each failure mode with the likelihood ranking for each
5. Preventive measures in place for firmly scheduling by the time production starts
6. Ranking of the effectiveness of each preventive measure
7. A ranking of the difficulty of detection
8. An estimate of the probability that the cause of a potential failure will be detected and corrected before the product reaches the end user
15. Discuss the importance of product traceability and recall procedures. Why is product traceability considered an important consumer safety issue?
Some months ago, I brought my wife’s minivan into the dealership for some scheduled maintenance. While we were in the process of doing the paperwork, the auto technician pulled off a list of all maintenance that should have been performed and which items had not been done on our car. By using the vehicles Product ID Number (PIN), they were able to identify all of the maintenance that any dealership had performed on the van.
As vehicles (or any product for that matter) become more complex, a methodology for tracking the individual product can save money, reputation, and lives.
16. What environmental considerations are important for product designers? Do you believe that environmental considerations will become more important or less important in the future? Explain your answer.
Environmental concerns have been a major news story since Rachel Carson wrote “Silent Spring ” The consumer has been educated to look for the environmental concerns of the products that they buy. This is in addition to the various legal restrictions. On page 181, the text discusses the move to Green Manufacturing and discusses the move to the life-cycle approach to product design as a partial remedy to this concern. The three practices that this approach consists of are:
• Design for reuse
• Design for disassembly
• Design for remanufacture
The text uses the Kodak FunSaver camera as an example. 87% of each camera is either recycled or reused. In addition:
Kodak subcontracted with a company named OutSource, a New York state sponsoring organization that employs handicapped people, to take the cameras apart.
The three environmental considerations that are important for product designers mentioned in the chapter are: design for reuse, design for disassembly, and design for remanufacture.
17. Compare the job of a product designer 20 years ago to the job of a product designer today. In your opinion, what has been the single most significant technological advancement that has changed the job of a product designer?
The increasing rate of change in technology in the last twenty years is unprecedented. The list might include such concepts and tools as:
• Robotics
• Integrated computers
• New materials and production techniques
• Educated consumers
• Massively improved communications techniques
Any of these, in addition to many not listed, would greatly change the job of the product designer.
1: Keeping Apple's IPhone Competitive
1. The case discusses the issues of trade-offs in design. What are some smartphone trades-offs? Why are these important to consider in design?
Battery life, multitasking, camera, and interfaces with social networks are some of the trade-offs that need to be considered for a smartphone. Trying to incorporate all of these into the initial design can be complex and costly so Apple must make the right choice as to what to include and when and how the customer will respond to these added or not added feature.
2. Choose another product besides a smartphone. What are some important trade-offs for that product design?
Students could choice a myriad of technical products to discuss, laptops, TVs, MP3 players, etc. In all these products they will talk about features such as speed, size, compatibility, ease of use, etc. They should mention the benefits of these items and what the results would be from the customer if these features were included or not.
3. How should Apple evaluate the “quality” of its iPhone?
As one reviewer put it (http://ergonomics.about.com/od/buyingguide/fr/iphone.htm):
“The iPhone is the smartest smart phone out there. It works just like the commercials. It is that smooth and usable.
Every aspect of the user experience has been thought out. Using the device and the applications is intuitive. And the transitions between the applications are natural.
The applications are quick and easy to pick up, set up and use. You have the most commonly used applications right out of the box. It still remains to be seen if you'll be able to add new applications or Apple widgets, but with a device like this you would expect that capability.
How do you know when usability has been enhanced? After a day of playing with the iPhone, I found myself trying to grab the screen on my laptop with the cursor and flicking with my touch-pad. It didn't work, of course.
One of the biggest questions surrounding the iPhone has been "Is the interface really intuitive?" How do you find out? You use it without reading the manual. The iPhone doesn't come with one anyway.
You can also give the iPhone to someone technically illiterate -- I handed mine over to my father. After two minutes of playing with it he said, "Yep, I can use it." That is quite an endorsement.
In short, the iPhone lives up to all the hype. They got it right with this one.”
4. How could Apple improve its design processes for the iPhone?
One thing they could keep in mind is the Kano Quality/DesignModel,
The model shows that quality is a function of fulfilling customer requirements and achieving high levels of satisfaction. The goal should be exciting quality. As students discuss the model, they should realize that as time passes, customer demands will increase and what was once exciting will become a basic expectation, as Apple has seen in its various generations of the iPhone.
2: Nucor Corporation: Producing Quality Steel
by Stressing Sound Management Practices
1. This chapter has emphasized process design. At Nucor, do human resources processes affect product quality?
Most definitely yes, human resource processes are integral to their success. The success is summed up at the end of the case:
The amazing thing about Nucor’s success is that it is so simple: Give employees a stake in the company’s growth; focus on the business at hand; keep red tape and bureaucracy to a minimum
Employees are motivated by a culture that rewards their participation. This empowerment is facilitated by the fact that there are only four levels between the CEO and frontline employees.
2. How do Nucor’s management practices affect its ability to produce high-quality products? Make your answer as substantive as possible.
Nucor’s management practices drive self-motivation. Decisions are driven to the lowest level. The front line is empowered to make decisions. The front line employees are recognized and rewarded financially for their participation.
Answer: Nucor's management practices affect its ability to product high quality products by eliciting commitment and discretionary effort from employees. Nucor is designed to be a high performance organization. That design contributes to the company's efforts to produce high quality products.
3. Would you enjoy working at Nucor? Why or why not?
An employee who does allow mediocrity to be a personal identity will thrive in this environment. This management style is pure Theory Y: it appeals to the individuals that see themselves as self-motivated and self-actualized. The case states that:
In return for the generous compensation package, Nucor holds its employees to a high standard. Decision-making is pushed down to the factory floor in many instances, requiring mental toughness and continuous education on the part of the company’s employees. The company also asks its employees to be prompt and fully engaged in their jobs.
A person who wants to excel and is drive by personal; pride will thrive. A person who is simply by salary only will probably not succeed here.
SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS
1. Flowchart the design and production process for writing a book such as Managing Quality: Integrating the Supply Chain. Use the standard process for designing products in the chapter.
• The standard process demonstrated is the chapter is as follows:
• Product idea generation: The author submits a proposal to a publisher. The proposal is sent out for review. Feedback from the reviewers is used in determining whether or not to proceed with the project.
• Customer future needs projection: Part of the initial proposal includes a forecast of the market for the book. The author identifies potential markets and the publisher does due diligence to determine the size of these markets.
• Technology selection for product development: A decision is made in the process whether to publish a hardback or paperback book. Design decisions are made such as whether or not the book will be in color or black and white. These decisions are made based on the size of the market for the book. A quality management book is a “small market” book when compared to an introductory business statistics book that is a “large market” book. Small market books will be printed in 1 color, usually black. It is a sign that this book has been very successful that we have published the third edition in 2 color, black and blue inks, with enhanced graphics.
• Technology development for process selection: The publishers have existing relationships with development companies and publishers. Prior editions of this text had the figures developed in India. The third edition utilized a premium American firm for graphical work.
• Final product definition: The author completes the manuscript and submits it to the publisher who does editing and develops a final production schedule. The compositors and the author then proceed through a series of proofing steps. We have also used an outside fact checker for quantitative material.
• Product marketing and distribution preparation: The marketing plan is developed by the marketing and distribution specialists. A hint to anyone using this book who wants to publish their own book is to require a written marketing plan from the publisher before moving forward. I did this with the first edition.
• Product design and evaluation: This probably is most analogous to the proofing stages.
• Manufacturing system design: The printer develops the printing process for the book.
• Product manufacture, delivery, and use: These are self-explanatory.
2. Define key customer requirements for a pen. Next, define key technical
requirements for the pen. Create a matrix showing the relationships between
technical and customer requirements using the QFD format.
Answers may vary. This is an example:
Example Customer Requirements:
Pen should not leak.
Pen should write reliably.
Pen should be comfortable to the grasp.
Ink should not smear.
Related Technical Engineering Requirements:
Uniform ink drop
Ink viscosity
Biometic design elements
Pressure to release ink
3. Define key customer requirements for an automobile windshield. Next, define
key technical requirements. Create a matrix showing the relationships between
technical and customer requirements using the QFD format.
Customer Requirements
Good visibility
Not too hot in car
Car is attractive
Good gas mileage
Technical Requirements
Pitch of windshield
Type of glass
Window tinting
Window dimensions
4. For the QFD problem 4 matrix, compute the
a. Customer requirements absolute weight
b. Technical requirements absolute weight and factor
c. Technical requirements relative weight and factor
d. Which design and technical factors should be emphasized? Why?
Emphasize technical requirement 3 because its absolute and relative weight factors are higher than other factors.
5.
For the QFD problem 5 matrix, compute the
a. Customer requirements absolute weight
b. Technical requirements absolute weight and factor
c. Technical requirements relative weight and factor
d. Which design and technical factors should be emphasized? Why?
Technical Requirement 3 because its absolute and relative weight factors are higher than other factors.
8. For the QFD problem 6 matrix, compute the:
a. Customer requirements absolute weight.
b. Technical requirement absolute weight and factor
c. Technical requirement relative weight and factor
d. Which design and technical factor should be emphasized? Why? Focus on technical requirement 3 first. That is what has the highest factor when considering market impact and design imperatives.
What are the important design elements for a pair of pants?
Respondents may give some of the following responses:
a. Customer requirements
- Do the pants fit properly?
- Are they the correct length?
- Are they the right color?
- Does the zipper work properly?
- Any visible flaws?
b. Technical requirements
- Fabric density
- Color intensity
- Zipper capture straight
- Stretching strength
c. Using the QFD format, show the relationships (with strengths, i.e., 1, 3, or 9)
between a. and b. above.
For example, students might rank the relationship between the zipper working properly and the zipper capture being straight as a 9.
Using the format in Figure 7-15, develop an FMEA for a pair of women’s panty hose.
For this problem, have students use the template in the chapter and brainstorm the requirements for a pair of panty hose.
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