中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记：《品质管理学》：Managing Quality Improvement Teams and Projects
Managing Quality Improvement Teams and Projects
中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學
Managing Quality Improvement Teams and Projects
Chapter Outline:
• Leading Teams for Quality Improvement
• Types of Teams
• Implementing Teams
• Managing and Controlling Projects
• Force-field Analysis
Overview
This chapter covers three topics:
1. How has today’s business environment changed business’s focus from command and control (or reacting to problems) to an environment based on what the text calls “knowledge work” on page 372. The increased complexity of running a successful business is driving that change.
2. Leading teams has become a major part of a successful product implementation. The well-lead team offers a work environment that is conducive to success
3. Managing projects has increased in importance. Most development or modification efforts are done via a project. These projects have a defined life; they start and the end. The period of time between the start and end must be managed correctly. This chapter discusses tools and methodologies that will aid in making a project successful.
The introductory section quotes Joseph Juran on page 372:
Joseph Juran has long emphasized the importance of teams and projects in the improvement of quality. He stated that the improvement of quality should be approached on a “project-by-project basis, and in no other way.” Teams are a fundamental part of projects.
Discussion Questions
1. Why has increased complexity in the workplace resulted in an increased emphasis on employee participation and teamwork?
As complexity increases, the ability of a single person to be effective diminishes. As identified in the introduction, knowledge work places a new set of necessities on the line worker. More time must be spent organizing, communicating and researching. Teamwork simplifies this endeavor.
2. What is the difference between routine work and knowledge work? Provide examples of each type of work.
The figure below explains the concept. Routine work is work that has been structured. While the work might be manual, it also can be what might be considered desk-work, bookkeeping comes to mind. Knowledge work implies that the employee enjoys a degree of freedom in his or her actions. Imagination and actual knowledge of the environment come into play. An engineer would be an example of a knowledge worker.
3. What is meant by employee empowerment? What is the relationship between employee empowerment and teamwork?
One of the prevailing concepts in management today is the idea of making decisions at the lowest level possible. Empowerment is done when a worker has the freedom to make decisions. On page 373, the text provides a list of the promises to employees that identify employee empowerment.
• You will have greater control over your own work.
• You will not be penalized for making decisions that don’t pan out.
• Management is changing and becoming more contemporary.
• Management is committed to quality improvement over the long haul.
• Management will concede more control over company systems to you.
• Management values your ideas and opinions and will give them serious consideration.
• Management trusts you and is worthy of trust in return.
• You will be rewarded for making decisions that benefit the company.
• Labor is capable of decision making concerning its own jobs and company processes.
4. In what ways can employee empowerment facilitate and contribute to organizational learning?
Employee empowerment is usually accompanied by a change in the corporate culture. This new culture involves granting freedom to the employee to learn, question, and take intelligent risks without fear of recrimination. All of this activity expands organizational learning. It also provides a methodology for expanding organizational learning.
5. What are the major disadvantages of multiple layers of management in a business organization? Is teamwork typically implemented in organizations that have multiple layers of management or organizations that have fairly flat hierarchies? Explain your answer.
Reducing levels of management or flattening hierarchies immediately improves communication. The text discusses the efforts led by consultants such as Tom Peters and others. The discussion on page 375 presents the advantages. Reducing levels of management gives the worker more visibility to management and allows the employee access to information so that the empowered employee can make the appropriate decisions required by the job.
In a team environment, the mix of skills and experience allows decision making at the team level. This increases the effectiveness of the organization. On page 439, the text speaks to an example in which a corporation spent six months deciding on the standard colors for telephones. One side effect of the multi-tiered hierarchy is the reluctance of people to make simple decisions. If the team reports to a director as opposed to a supervisor, the team will be more inclined to make these simple decisions in a more cost-effective manner.
6. Describe the principal attributes of Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model. Is this model of leadership appropriate for a quality-minded company?
Hersey and Blanchard looked at two key qualities of management-- guidance and emotional support-- and constructed the matrix in Figure 14-1. This simple chart expresses the view that the optimal leadership style is low guidance and high emotional support yielding a participating management style. This loose structure and strong level of consideration enables the empowered employee.
7. What does readiness refer to in a leadership context? What are the two variables that an employee’s level of readiness is a function of?
Used in a leadership context, readiness refers to the extent to which a follower has the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. Readiness is a function of two variables: ability and technical skills (job maturity), and self-confidence in one’s abilities (psychological maturity).
8. In general, do employees enjoy working in teams? Why or why not?
In an environment where expectations are known and the employee is empowered, the text states on page 373, that employees enjoy working on teams. The text goes on to list five motivators that empowered employees enjoy:
• Mutuality
• Recognition for personal achievement
• Belonging
• Bounded power
• Creative autonomy
While it is unstated, the common denominator in this discussion is respect, both respect for the employee and earned respect for management.
9. Briefly describe the five stages of the life cycle of a team. Is it important for a team to pass through each of these stages? Why or why not?
On page 377 the text discusses five stages that a team goes through during its existence. Figure 14-2 presents these stages:
A successful team, according to the text, will go through all five of these stages. Each stage is dependent upon the previous stage, therefore each stage is needed. For example: The storming stage is described as the stage where the members begin to know each other and the internal communications have not been established. The next stage, norming, is that period where the team is functioning as a unit. At this stage, all communications are in place and the team is functional. Without the trial and error of the storming stage, the effectiveness of the norming stage will not happen.
10. What is the purpose of a process improvement team? Provide an example of a process improvement team for a business organization.
Process improvement teams exist to shepherd the continuous quality improvement process. While these teams may be management or self directed, they oversee the quality improvement methodology. On page 444 their tasks are defined as:
… identifying opportunities for improvement, prioritizing opportunities, selecting projects, gathering data, analyzing data, making recommendations, implementing change, and conducting postimplementation reviews
An example of a process improvement team is a safety team that continually looks for ways to improve the safety of a manufacturing facility and makes recommendations to management on safety related issues.
11. What is meant by a self-directed work team? In your judgment, are self-directed work teams a good idea? Explain your answer.
The phrase self-directed is self-explanatory. The text discusses “little s” or “big S” teams. A “little s” team is one that is empowered to be self-directed in matters that are within their charted. A “big S” team is chartered within a company to identify projects that affect different functions. A “big S” team operates without traditional management structure.
The success of a self-directed team is tied directly to the level of employee empowerment that exists within the company. Employees who feel that they have full support of management will take the risks that they deem necessary.
12. Describe the role of the facilitator of a team. Is the role of the facilitator important, or is it primarily ceremonial in nature?
A facilitator is essentially a “traffic cop.” A facilitator is not a project leader or manager. The facilitator’s role is to insure that the team is focused on the task at hand. Facilitators are there to maximize the success of the individual members of the team. Facilitators are frequently used to manage meetings so as to minimize side discussions and insure that the conversation stays on track.
Many of today’s development methodologies make use of the facilitator role. Specifically, a facilitator is used to enable the team (or meeting) to:
• Know where it is going
• Know why it wants to get there
• Know how to get there
• Know what they're going to do next
13. What is meant by team building? Is team building a concept from which all teams can benefit?
Twenty years ago, team building involved off-site challenge courses or activities. Today, according to the text, the roles of team building have become quite specific. They include:
• Identifying the team members’ roles.
• Help them become competent at these roles.
• Handle conflict resolution.
In the five stages discussed in question nine, team building occurs during forming, storming, and norming.
14. In a meeting management context, to what does parking lot refer?
One of the problems with any meeting is the fact that people frequently bring their own personal agenda items into a meeting. Frequently these items are not on the meeting agenda. One method of keeping the meeting focused is by using a “parking lot.” A parking lot is a place where items are placed that need resolution but are not part of the topic under discussion. At the end of the meeting, either assign these items to people or schedule further meetings to address them.
15. What are the primary sources of conflict in work teams? What are some of the methods for resolving team conflict?
People come from various backgrounds with different attitudes. Conflict is unavoidable. Handled correctly, conflict can be quite healthy. Handled poorly, conflict can destroy a project. On page 383 the text defines four stages of conflict:
Frustration. People are at odds, and competition or aggression ensues.
Conceptualization and orientation. Opponents identify the issues that need
to be resolved.
Interaction. Team members discuss and air the problems.
Outcome. The problem is resolved.
If communications are free and open and an environment of mutual respect exists, conflict will become a normal and healthy manner of resolving differing points of view. Fostering this environment of mutual respect is the task of the team of the team leader.
16. Describe what is meant by virtual teams. Provide an example of a virtual team in a business organization.
Electronic communications have enabled team processes. Distance is no longer a problem for working together. A virtual team is one that utilizes today’s high-tech environment to function despite location. Teleconferencing, e-mail, and instant messaging all provide the same ease of communications that proximity used to. A Closer Look At Quality 14-2 demonstrates this concept.
17. How does a project charter help a team identify issues relevant to team success?
The project charter is a document that defines objectives, participants, and expected benefits from the charter. Figure 14-5 on page 455 contains an example of a project charter.
Essentially the charter is the “permission slip” for the project to start.
18. Describe the critical path method for organizing work projects. When is the use of this method appropriate?
Almost all non-trivial projects are composed of sets of tasks. There are usually interrelationships between these tasks. Some tasks cannot start before another task has completed. The critical path method (CPM) is a method of charting these tasks and showing their relationships. The critical path is the longest distinct path. It is critical because it defines the total length of the project. If this set of tasks is delayed the project is delayed. XPM identifies those tasks that affect the overall schedule the most. Gantt charting and Pert charting are similar techniques that can be used to determine a critical path.
19. Describe the difference between critical tasks and a critical path.
A critical task is a task with no slack. Slack is the amount of time an activity in a project can be delayed without delaying the entire project. A series of critical tasks is called a critical path. Figure 14-12 presents the output from a program called Microsoft Project. This “Pert Chart” presents a series of tasks and their interrelationships. PERT is an acronym for “Project Evaluation and Review Technique.”
20. Describe an experience you have had working in a team (in a work setting or in a college class). Describe how your experience either confirms or refutes one of the principles of teamwork described in this chapter
There are as many correct answers to this question as there are participants in the discussion. Every student should be able to present examples of both positive and negative experiences with teams. It might be interesting to collect the negative experiences and see if there is any commonality.
Whole Foods Market: Using Teamwork as a Recipe for Success
Whole Foods Market: www.wholefoodsmarket.com
1. Do you believe that Whole Foods’ emphasis on teamwork is appropriate for the grocery store industry? Why or why not?
Because the supermarket industry is aging and is not known for innovative management techniques, most students will probably argue that teamwork (which represents a fresh approach) is a good choice for the grocery store industry. Also, the potential benefits of teamwork in a grocery store context (e.g., promote cooperation among a store's employees and increase the competitive spirit of a store's employees) sound encouraging. From a pragmatic standpoint, a grocery store also provides a convenient format to establish teams because a grocery store has obvious departments (e.g., produce, canned goods, a bakery, a deli, etc.) that teams can organize around.
It would be interesting to ask if any students have direct experience with Whole Foods or a similar company. Ask them to compare the shopping experience at Whole Foods with the experience at more traditional stores. Another interesting question for the discussion is whether the Whole Foods shopping experience is more reminiscent of the small family run grocery store.
2. What is your opinion of Whole Foods’ practice of sharing team performance data with all company employees? Do you believe that this practice risks creating “too competitive” a spirit among the firm’s teams and employees? Explain your answer.
There are pluses and minuses to sharing team performance data among employees. On the plus side, the sharing of performance data with all employees facilitates an "open atmosphere" in an organization. This helps build trust between upper management and rank-and-file employees. In addition, the sharing of data provides team information on what it will take to "beat" another team in a spirit of healthy competition and fun.
On the minus side, sometimes the sharing of data can lead to unhealthy competition and can cause divisions rather than the building of cooperation among employees.
Do other factors affect the performance of the teams such as price fluctuations, holidays, weather?
3. Would you enjoy working on a team at Whole Foods? Why or why not?
Obviously there is no correct answer to this question. It might be interesting to post a list of the pros and cons, and challenge each student to contribute to both sides of the discussion.
SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS
1.
2.
3.
Perform a cost benefit analysis with payback period for a project where indirect costs are $50,000, direct costs are $25,000, and annualized benefits are $60,000.
Using formula 14.2:
PP = Ct/Ba = (25,000+50,000)/60,000 = 1.25 years.
Perform a cost benefit analysis using the following data:
Direct Costs:
10 laptops - $2,000 ea.
A server - $2,000
Network Installation - $15,000
Software – $20,000
Indirect Costs:
Training - $15,000
Annualized Benefits
Increased Capacity - $100,000
We will compute the payback period as part of our CBA.
The formula is: PP = Ct/Ba = ($57,000+$15,000)/$100,000 = .72 years
.72*365 = 263 day payback period. The payback is less than 1 year.
Following are activities, precedence relationships, and task times (days) for a number of tasks.
a. Construct a precedence diagram.
b. Compute early and late times
See the above.
c. Find the critical path
Critical Path = A – B – D – F – J – K – L – M
d. Which tasks could the project manager delegate?
Managers will tend to delegate non-critical tasks.
e. Compute the slack for each task.
Use formula 14.7, late start – early start:
A = 0 – 0 = 0
B = 5 – 5 = 0
C = 9 – 5 = 4
D = 7 – 7 = 0
E = 13 – 9 = 4
F = 12 – 12 = 0
G = 19 – 15 = 4
H = 21 – 12 = 9
I = 18 – 13 = 5
J = 26 –26 = 0,
K = 23 – 23 = 0
L = 26 – 26 = 0
M = 33 – 33 = 0
f. Which tasks would you shorten first to shorten the project completion time?
Shorten critical tasks that cost the least to expedite.
g. What is the expected project completion time?
37 days
h. What is the probability of completing the project in the time identified in G?
50%. I believe this an important concept for students to understand.
4.
Following are activities, precedence relationships, and task times (days) for a number of tasks.
a. Construct a precedence diagram.
b. Compute early and late times
(See the above artwork. )
c. Find the critical path
Critical path = C – F – I – J – L
d. Which tasks could the project manager delegate?
Delegate non-critical tasks with larger slacks – start with B
e. Compute the slack for each task.
Task Slack
A 9
B 15
C 0
D 9
E 9
F 0
G 9
H 9
I 0
J 0
K 9
L 0
f. Which tasks would you shorten first to shorten the project completion time?
Shorten the critical task with the lowest cost to expedite.
g. What is the expected project completion time?
282 days (50% completion probability).
5. For the data presented in the text (see also below):
a. Draw an AON diagram.
b. Compute te for each task. (see table)
c. Identify the critical path and the expected completion time. ADJNO 42.9
d. Compute slacks for all tasks. (see table)
e. Your project manager wishes for you to compute a completion time (in days) that gives you a 95% chance of success. He will use this time estimate in negotiating a completion date for the project.
To solve this problem we need to determine the Z Scores for 95%. We are looking for the area under the bell curve which represents 95%. Using Table A-2 and looking up .45 (.95 - .50) we get a Z score of approximately 1.7. Using the critical path expected time and standard deviation we get 42.9 + (1.7 x 6.41) = 42.9 + 10.9 = 53.8.
Project std = 6.41
Critical path = 4
Expected time = 42.9
95 = 50 + 45 - 1.7
45% = 1.7-2
6. For the following data:
Time Estimates (Days)
Task Predecessor To Tm Tp Te Variance
A 1 2 9 3 1.78
B 2 5 8 5 1.00
C 1 3 5 3 .44
D A 4 10 25 11.5 12.5
E A 3 7 12 7.2 2.25
F B 10 15 25 15.8 6.25
G C 5 9 14 9.2 2.25
H D, E 2 3 7 3.5 .69
I D, E, F 1 4 6 3.8 .69
J D, E, F, G 2 5 10 5.3 1.78
K H, I, J 3 3 3 3.0 0
a. Draw a PERT diagram.
b. Compute expected completion times for all tasks. (see the above artwork)
c. Find the critical path. B– F–J–K That is the path with no slack.
d. What is the completion time that gives you a 75% chance of success.
P=.75 yields z=.68 from the z Table.
Sum the variances for critical tasks from the above table, using the beta distribution estimates. Project variance = 1 + 6.25 + 1.78 + 0 = 9.03
Project standard deviation = SQRT (9.03) = 3.005
Therefore, the 75% completion time is 29.1 + .68(3.005) = 31.14 days.
7. (Team Project)
Develop a project plan for buying a house.
Use the following steps:
a. Use a work breakdown structure (tree diagram - Chapter 10) to identify tasks for completing the project. Be complete (at least 50 tasks) and use sticky notes.
b. Laying out your sticky notes, identify the precedence relationships for each task.
c. Brainstorm optimistic time, most likely time, and pessimistic time for each task.
d. Compute expected completion time for each task.
e. Draw your network diagram, compute early and late times, and find the critical path.
f. Compute the 90% completion time for your project.
Answers will vary for this. This is a nice project as they will have to go through the steps involved in planning a real project. It also causes them to interview a real estate sales person to get the information they need.
8. (Team Project)
Complete the steps in problem 7 for the following project: Completing a university degree program (choose any major).
Answers will vary for this. This is a nice project as they will have to go through the steps involved in planning a real project. This is something with which the students are familiar.
9. (Team Project)
Develop a Gantt chart for welcoming a new baby into the world (conception has already occurred). Remember you only have 9 months to complete the project.
There is a lot of work that goes into preparing for birth. The students may want to think through this.
10. Complete a cost benefit analysis for a college degree at your university. Be sure to include all direct and indirect costs. Tale into account the time value of money for future income.
Often, IRR or NPV calculation are required for CBAs. Ask the students to use these in this analysis. The payback period calculations in the text are limited in that they don’t account for the time value of money.
11. Complete a cost benefit analysis for a marriage. Be sure to include both the benefits and costs in your model. Model the marriage given two scenarios – a strong marriage and a poor marriage. (Hint: You should find that the benefits for a strong marriage approach infinity and the benefits of a poor marriage approach zero.)
Payback models don’t work for this, if they model this using NPV models from a finance text book. They will find that theoretically, the benefits of a good marriage are infinite and the benefits of a poor marriage are zero.
12. Meet with a favorite professor to perform a force-field analysis relating to adding a new course to your major in the university. Would you recommend this project?
This is an example answer. Students often don’t understand the difficult process in making curricular changes.
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