Chapter 7 Developing PriceStrategies and Programs
Chapter 7 Developing PriceStrategies and Programs
内容提要：中国经济管理大学 www.mhjy.net www.eauc.hk
行銷管理[美]菲力浦•科特勒著第十一版
第七章 價格策略
教學目的：通過定價與戰略方案的講授，使學生掌握關於“價格行銷策略”的相關知識，並培養實際運用能力。
教學重點：如何修訂產品的價格以適應變化環境和機會的需要？
教學難點：公司怎樣發起價格變動和怎樣對價格變動做出反應？
教學時數：6（講授、討論、實踐）
教學內容與步驟：
Chapter 7 Developing PriceStrategies and Programs
Kotler on Marketing
Sell value, not price.
Chapter Objectives
§ In this chapter, we focus on three questions:
§ How should a price be set on a product or service for the first time?
§ How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?
§ When should the company initiate a price change, and how should it respond to a competitor’s price change?
Figure 16.1: Nine Price-Quality Strategies
Figure 16.2: Price Should Align with Value
Setting the Price
§ Step 1: Selecting the pricing objective
§ Survival
§ Maximize current profits
§ Maximize their market share
§ Market-penetration pricing
§ Best when:
§ Market is highly price-sensitive, and a low price stimulates market growth,
§ Production and distribution costs fall within accumulated production experience, and
§ Low price discourages actual and potential competition
Many companies engage in “market skimming,” offering new products at whatever price the market will bear, then over time decreasing the price in order to gain the maximum profit from each market segment. Can you think of any products that wouldn’t fit this pricing model? Why not?
§ Step 2: Determining Demand
§ Price sensitivity
§ Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
Setting the Price
§ Tom Nagle offers this list of factors associated
with lower price sensitivity§ The product is more distinctive
§ Buyers are less aware of substitutes
§ Buyers cannot easily compare the quality of substitutes
§ The expenditure is a smaller part of the buyer’s total income
§ The expenditure is small compared to the total cost of the end product
§ Part of the cost is borne by another party
§ The product is used in conjunction with assets previously bought
§ The product is assumed to have more quality, prestige, or exclusiveness
§ Buyers cannot store the product
§ Estimating Demand Curves
§ Price Elasticity of Demand
§ Inelastic
§ Elastic
§ Price indifference band
Setting the Price
§ Step 3: Estimating Cost
§ Types of Cost and Levels of Production
§ Fixed costs (overhead)
§ Variable cost
§ Total cost
§ Average cost
§ Accumulated Production
§ Experience curve (Learning curve)
§ Differentiated Marketing Offers
§ Activity-based cost (ABC) accounting
§ Target costing
§ Step 4: Analyzing Competitors’ Cost, Prices, and Offers
Setting the Price
§ Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method
§ Markup Pricing
Unit Cost =
variable cost + (fixed cost/unit sales)§ Markup price
Markup price=
unit cost/ (1 – desired return on sales)§ Target-Return Pricing
Target-return price =
unit cost + (desired return X investment capital)/unit sales
Figure 16.8: Break-Even Chart for Determining Target-Return Price and Break-Even Volume
§ Break-even volume
Break-even volume = fixed cost / (price – variable cost)
§ Perceived-Value Pricing
§ Perceived value
§ Price buyers
§ Value buyers
§ Loyal buyers
§ Value-in-use price
Setting the Price
§ Value Pricing
§ Everyday low pricing (EDLP)
§ High-low pricing
§ Going-Rate Pricing
§ Auction-Type Pricing
§ English auctions (ascending bids)
§ Dutch auctions (descending bids)
§ Sealed-bid auctions
§ Group Pricing
Table 16.1: Effect of Different Bids
on Expected ProfitSome large entities, both public and private, currently bid online for many products and services. Do you think there will be a market for consumers to bid on electrical power, like major corporate electricity users do? What about oil for heating? Can you think of any other products or services with a potential online auction market for home users?
Setting the Price
§ Step 6: Selecting the Final Price
§ Psychological Pricing
§ Reference price
§ Gain-and-Risk-Sharing Pricing
§ Influence of the Other Marketing Elements
§ Brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets charged premium prices
§ Brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising budgets obtained the highest prices
§ The positive relationship between high advertising budgets and high prices held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders
Setting the Price
§ Brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets charged premium prices
§ Brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising budgets obtained the highest prices
§ The positive relationship between high advertising budgets and high prices held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders
§ Company Pricing Policies
§ Impact of Price on Other Parties
Adapting the Price
§ Geographical Pricing (Cash, Countertrade, Barter)
§ Countertrade
§ Barter
§ Compensation deal
§ Buyback arrangement
§ Offset
§ Price Discounts and Allowances
Table 16.2: Price Discounts and Allowances
Cash Discount:
A price reduction to buyers who pay bills promptly. A typical example is “2/10, net 30,” which means that payment is due within 30 days and that the buyer can deduct 2 percent by paying the bill within 10 days.
Quantity Discount:
A price reduction to those who buy large volumes. A typical example is “$10 per unit for less than 100 units; $9 per unit for 100 or more units.” Quantity discounts must be offered equally to all customers and must not exceed the cost savings to the seller. They can be offered on each order placed or on the number of units ordered over a given period.
Adapting the Price
§ Promotional Pricing
§ Loss-leader pricing
§ Special-event pricing
§ Cash rebates
§ Low-interest financing
§ Longer payment terms
§ Warranties and service contracts
§ Psychological discounting
Adapting the Price
§ Discriminatory Pricing
§ Customer segment pricing
§ Product-form pricing
§ Image pricing
§ Channel pricing
§ Location pricing
§ Time pricing
§ Yield pricing
Adapting the Price
§ Product-mix pricing
§ Product-Line Pricing
§ Optional-Feature Pricing
§ Captive-Product Pricing
§ Captive products
§ Two-Part Pricing
§ By-Product Pricing
§ Product-Bundling Pricing
§ Pure bundling
§ Mixed bundling
Initiating and Responding to Price Changes
§ Initiating Price Cuts
§ Drive to dominate the market
through lower costs§ Low quality trap
§ Fragile-market-share trap
§ Shallow-pockets trap
Table 16.3: Marketing-Mix Alternatives
Strategic Options Reasoning Consequences
1. Maintain price and
perceived quality.
Engage in selective
customer pruning. Firm has higher customer
loyalty. It is willing to lose
poorer customers to competitors.
Smaller market share. Lowered profitability.
2. Raise price and
perceived quality.
Raise price to cover rising costs.
Improve quality to justify higher prices.
Smaller market share. Maintained profitability.
3. Maintain price and
raise perceived quality.
It is cheaper to maintain price
and raise perceived quality.
Smaller market share. Short-term decline in profitability.
Long-term increase in profitability.
Table 16.4: Profits Before and After a Price Increase
Initiating and Responding to Price Changes
§ Initiating Price Increases
§ Cost inflation
§ Anticipatory pricing
§ Overdemand
§ Delayed quotation pricing
§ Escalator clauses
§ Unbundling
§ Reduction of discounts
Initiating and Responding to Price Changes
§ Possible responses to higher costs or overhead without raising prices include:
§ Shrinking the amount of product instead of raising the price
§ Substituting less expensive materials or ingredients
§ Reducing or removing product features
§ Removing or reducing product services, such as installation or free delivery
§ Using less expensive packaging material or larger package sizes
§ Reducing the number of sizes and models offered
§ Creating new economy brands
Initiating and Responding to Price Changes
§ Reactions to Price Changes
§ Customer Reactions
§ Competitor Reactions
§ Responding to Competitors’ Price Changes
§ Maintain price
§ Maintain price and add value
§ Reduce price
§ Increase price and improve quality
§ Launch a low-price fighter line
第七章 習 題
一、選擇題（1~5題是單項選擇題，6~10題是多項選擇題。每小題1分，共10分）
1、下列有關定價的說法哪個是正確的？（ ）
A、人們要想獲得所需要的產品，必須通過定價
B、定價是一個結果而不是一個過程
C、定價也就是交易的另一種說法
D、定價是人們獲得自己所需要的某種產品的一種方式
2、哪種觀念下容易出現“市場行銷近視”？ （ ）
A、生產觀念 B、推銷觀念 C、產品觀念 D、社會市場行銷觀念
3、某一汽車製造廠過去向橡膠和輪胎公司採購輪胎，現決定自己生產輪胎，這種做法稱為（ ）
A、後向一體化 B、前向一體化 C、水準一體化
D、同心多角化
4、市場行銷組合的4Ps是指 （ ）
A、價格、權力、地點、促銷 B、價格、廣告、地點、產品
C、價格、公關、地點、產品 D、價格、產品、地點、促銷
5、下列哪種因素是企業的微觀環境因素？（ ）
A、人口 B、購買力 C、公眾 D、自然環境
6、產業市場的特點有 （ ）
A、購買者數量少和規模大 B、購買者集中
C、引伸需求 D、富有彈性 E、非專家購買
7、人口老齡化對哪些行業造成威脅？（ ）
A、摩托車 B、體育用品 C、眼鏡 D、旅遊 E、保健品
8、在買方市場條件下，一般容易產生（ ）
A、推銷觀念 B、生產觀念 C、市場行銷觀念
D、社會市場行銷觀念 E、產品觀念
9、下列哪些形式屬於直複市場行銷？（ ）
A、電話市場行銷 B、電視市場行銷 C、直接銷售
D、直接郵購
10、廣義的促銷組合包括（ ）
A、廣告、宣傳 B、人員推銷 C、價格
D、銷售促進 E、管道二、判斷題（每小題2分，共10分）
1、市場行銷者可以通過行銷活動創造需要。（ ）
2、在波士頓矩陣中，低市場增長率和低相對市場佔有率的單位是問題類產品。（ ）
3、由於外界環境和市場需求的變化性，實行多角化是每個企業的發展方向。（ ）
4、市場行銷組合的因素對企業來說都是“可控因素”。（ ）
5、隨著個人可隨意支配收入的增加，給奢侈品的銷售帶來機會。（ ）
三、名詞解釋（每小題3分，共15分）
1、獨家分銷 2、市場定位 3、市場領導者 4、參照群體
5、微觀行銷環境四、簡答題（每小題7分，共35分）
1、簡述社會文化環境對市場行銷的影響。
2、企業在調整和優化產品組合時，可選擇的決策有哪些？
3、簡述市場挑戰者的競爭策略。
4、企業選定最後的價格時需考慮哪些情況？
5、選擇廣告媒體時應考慮哪些因素？五、案例分析（共30分）.
1、寶潔公司在市場上的產品有:香皂為舒膚佳，洗髮用品為飄柔、海飛絲、潘婷、沙萱。請分析其產品線的寬度、深度和關聯度。並指出其採用的品牌策略，以及這樣做的原因。2、公關專家伯內斯曾說，工商企業要“投公眾所好”。這似乎成了實業界一條“顛撲不破且放之四海而皆準”的真理。但索尼公司敢於毅然地說“不”。索尼的行銷政策“並不是先調查消費者喜歡什麼商品，然後再投其所好，而是以新產品去引導他們進行消費”。因為“消費者不可能從技術方面考慮一種產品的可行性，而我們則可以做到這一點。因此，我們並不在市場調查方面投入過多的兵力，而是集中力量探索新產品及其用途的各種可能性，通過與消費者的直接交流，教會他們使用這些新產品，達到開拓市場的目的”。
索尼的創始人盛田昭夫認為，新產品的發明往往來自於靈感，突然閃現，且稍縱即逝。現在流行於全世界的可擕式身歷聲單放機的誕生，就出自于一種必然中的“偶然”。一天，井深抱著一台索尼公司生產的可擕式身歷聲盒式答錄機，頭戴一副標準規格的耳機，來到盛田昭夫房間。從一進門，井深便一直抱怨這台機器如何笨重。盛田昭夫問其原因，他解釋說：“我想欣賞音樂，又怕妨礙別人，但也不能為此而整天坐在這台答錄機前，所以就帶上它邊走邊聽。不過這傢伙太重了，實在受不了。”井深的煩惱，點亮了盛田昭夫醞釀已久的構想。他連忙找來技師，希望他們能研製出一種新式的超小型放音機。
然而，索尼公司內部，幾乎眾口一詞反對盛田昭夫的新創意。但盛田昭夫毫不動搖，堅持研製。結果不出所料，該產品投放市場，空前暢銷。索尼為該機取了一個通俗易懂的名字——“沃可曼”。日後每談起這件事，盛田昭夫都不禁感慨萬千。當時無論進行什麼市場調查，都不可能由此產生“沃可曼”的設想。而恰恰正是這一不起眼的小小的產品，改變了世界上幾百萬、幾千萬人的音樂欣賞方式。
索尼公司在“創立旨趣書”上寫著這樣一條經營哲學：“最大限度地發揮技術人員的技能，自由開朗，建設一個歡樂的理想工廠。這就是‘創造需求’的哲學依據。”
問 題：
1、你認為應從哪些方面來理解“創造需求”這一概念？
2、結合案例分析“創造需求”在哪些方面突破了傳統的行銷原理。
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